Skip to main content

A History of War in the Post-colonial State

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
War, Denial and Nation-Building in Sri Lanka

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Compromise after Conflict ((PSCAC))

  • 609 Accesses

Abstract

Sri Lanka’s history of warfare is one of post-colonial political antagonism and majoritarian repression, political violence in pursuit of Tamil self-determination and a subsequent escalation in violence over the course of three decades that significantly transformed the relations between the state and the Tamils. That escalation was marked by the militarisation of the state and armed actors and an internationalisation of the conflict (Rasaratnam 2016, p. 5). The militarisation of the state and of the socio-political culture has had particular consequences in shaping the conflict and social relations, which will be discussed later in this chapter. Sinhala-Buddhist nationalism is examined here as a majoritarian nationalism that has been entwined with the very constitutional and political existence of the Sri Lankan state. That nationalism continuously reproduces the socio-political field along the lines of Sinhala supremacy and the marginalisation of minorities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Bibliography

  • Abeyratne, S. (2004). Economic Roots of Political Conflict: The Case of Sri Lanka. World Economy, 27(8), 1295–1314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abeysekara, A. (2001). The Saffron Army: Violence, Terror(ism), Identity and Difference in Sri Lanka. Numen-International Review for the History of Religions, 48, 1–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angell, M. (1998). Understanding the Aryan Theory. In M. Tiruchelvam & C. S. Dattathreya (Eds.), Culture and Politics of Identity in Sri Lanka. Colombo: International Centre for Ethnic Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balasingham, A. (2004). War and Peace: Armed Struggle and Peace Efforts of Liberation Tigers. Mitcham: Fairmax.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomeusz, T. J., & De Silva, C. R. (1998). Buddhist Fundamentalism and Identity in Sri Lanka. In T. J. Bartholomeusz & C. R. De Silva (Eds.), Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • BBC. (2008). Prelate Urges JVP Unity. BBC Sinhala.

    Google Scholar 

  • BDSNews24. (2011). Sri Lanka Military Offers Amnesty to Deserters. BDSNews24. http://bdnews24.com/world/2007/01/11/sri-lanka-military-offers-amnesty-to-deserters.

  • Billig, M. (1995). Rhetorical Psychology, Ideological Thinking, and Imagining Nationhood. In H. Johnston & B. Klandermans (Eds.), Social Movements and Culture (pp. 64–84). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, M. M. (2003). Ethnic Conflict, State Terror and Suicide Bombing in Sri Lanka. Civil Wars, 6(1), 54–84. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13698240308402526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bose, S. (1994). States, Nations, Sovereignty: Sri Lanka, India, and the Tamil Eelam Movement. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Publications, in Association with the Book Review Literary Trust, New Delhi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brow, J. (1988). In Pursuit of Hegemony: Representations of Authority and Justice in a Sri Lankan Village. American Ethnologist, 15(2), 311–327. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/644759?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brun, C. (2008). Birds of Freedom. Critical Asian Studies, 40(3), 399–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canagarajah, A. S. (1994). Competing Discourses in Sri Lankan English Poetry. World Englishes, 13(3), 361–376. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1994.tb00322.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarance, W. (2007). Ethnic Warfare in Sri Lanka and the UN Crisis. London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S. (2001). States of Denial: Knowing About Atrocities and Suffering. Malden, MA: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daily News. (2013). CHOGM 2013 Highlights. Daily News.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, E. V. (1996). Charred Lullabies: Chapters in an Anthropography of Violence. Philadelphia: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • de Mel, N. (2007). Militarizing Sri Lanka: Popular Culture, Memory and Narrative in the Sri Lankan Armed Conflict. London: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • de Silva, P. (2013). Reordering of Sri Pada Temple in Sri Lanka: Buddhism, State and Nationalism. History and Sociology of South Asia, 7(2), 155–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deegalle, M. (2004). Politics of the Jathika Hela Urumaya Monks: Buddhism and Ethnicity in Contemporary Sri Lanka. Contemporary Buddhism, 5(2), 83–103. Retrieved February 9, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1463994042000319816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeVotta, N. (2004). Blowback: Linguistic Nationalism, Institutional Decay, and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVotta, N. (2005). From Ethnic Outbidding to Ethnic Conflict: The Institutional Bases for Sri Lanka’s Separatist War1. Nations and Nationalism, 11(1), 141–159. Retrieved February 5, 2017, from http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1354-5078.2005.00196.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeVotta, N. (2007). Sinhalese Buddhist Nationalist Ideology: Implications for Politics and Conflict Resolution in Sri Lanka. Washington, DC: East-West Center Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dheeranda, R. H. (2006). The Historical Tradition of the Mahavamsa and Ethnic Amity. In A. Jayawarane (Ed.), Perspectives on National Integration in Sri Lanka. Colombo: National Integration Programme Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edirippulige, S. (2004). Sri Lanka’s Twisted Path to Peace: Some Domestic and International Obstacles to the Peace Process. Colombo: Resource Management Foundation, Sri Lanka.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gamburd, M. R. (2004). The Economics of Enlisting: A Village View of Armed Service. In D. Winslow & M. D. Woost (Eds.), Economy, Culture, and Civil War in Sri Lanka (pp. 151–167). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilroy, P. (2000). Against Race: Imagining Political Culture Beyond the Color Line. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gombrich, R. F., & Obeyesekere, G. (1988). Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groundviews. (2010). The Protest by Wimal Weerawansa Against the UN in Sri Lanka: Condoned by Government? Groundviews. http://groundviews.org/2010/07/08/the-protest-by-wimal-weerawansa-against-the-un-in-sri-lanka-condoned-by-government/.

  • Gunasekara, T. (2013). Playing with Fire, Again. Colombo Telegraph. http://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/playing-with-fire-again/.

  • Guss, D. M. (2000). The Festive State: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism as Cultural Performance. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellmann-Rajanayagam, D. (1994). Tamils and the Meaning of History. In C. Manogaran & B. Pfaffenberger (Eds.), The Sri Lankan Tamils: Ethnicity and Identity (pp. 54–83). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Höglund, K., & Orjuela, C. (2013). Friction and the Pursuit of Justice in Post-war Sri Lanka. Peacebuilding, 1(3), 300–316. Retrieved February 5, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/21647259.2013.813171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollup, O. (1998). The Impact of Land Reforms, Rural Images and Nationalist Ideology on Plantation Tamils. In T. J. Bartholomeusz & C. R. De Silva (Eds.), Buddhist Fundamentalism and Minority Identities in Sri Lanka (pp. 74–88). New York: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Imtiyaz, A. (2013). Buddhism and Electoral Politics in Sri Lanka Politicization, Tensions and De-politicization of Buddhism. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 49(3), 315–331. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0021909613486087.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Imtiyaz, A. R. M., & Stavis, B. (2008). Ethno-Political Conflict in Sri Lanka. Journal of Third World Studies, 25(2), 135–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jayathunga, N. P. (2010). Mahinda Rajapaksa—The Statesman. The Island, Opinion.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jayatilleka, D. (2013). The Coming Confrontation: Wigneswaran Alleges Genocide, Calls For Plebiscite. Colombo Telegraph. https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/the-coming-confrontation-wigneswaran-alleges-genocide-calls-for-plebiscite/.

  • Jazeel, T., & Brun, C. (2009). Spatial Politics and Postcolonial Sri Lanka. In C. Brun & T. Jazeel (Eds.), Spatialising Politics: Culture and Geography in Postcolonial Sri Lanka (p. 238). New Delhi: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeganathan, P. (1995). Authorising History, Ordering Land: The Conquest of Anuradhapura. In P. Jeganathan & Q. Ismail (Eds.), Unmaking the Nation: The Politics of Identity & History in Modern Sri Lanka (pp. 108–137). Colombo: Social Scientists Association of Sri Lanka.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kapferer, B. (1988). Legends of People, Myths of State: Violence, Intolerance, and Political Culture in Sri Lanka and Australia. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eww8QyTSxQ8C&printsec=copyright#v=onepage&q&f=false.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleinfeld, M. (2003). Strategic Troping in Sri Lanka: September Eleventh and the Consolidation of Political Position. Geopolitics, 8(3), 105–126. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14650040412331307732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumaratunga, C. (2004). Speech at the 21st Anniversary of “Black July”. http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/document/papers/blackjuly2004.htm.

  • Kuran, T. (1998). Ethnic Norms and Their Transformation Through Reputational Cascades. The Journal of Legal Studies, 27(S2), 623–659. Retrieved February 5, 2017, from http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/468038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, D. (2010). The Failure of a Liberal Peace: Sri Lanka’s Counter-insurgency in Global Perspective. Conflict, Security & Development, 10(5), 647–671. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14678802.2010.511509.

  • Manogaran, C. (1987). Ethnic Conflict and Reconciliation in Sri Lanka. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Defence and Urban Development. (2008). Sacred Tears in Anuradhapura Sri Maha Bodhi Remembered. Ministry of Defence News.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadarajah, S., & Sentas, V. (2013). The Politics of State Crime and Resistance—Self-Determination in Sri Lanka. In E. Stanley & J. McCulloch (Eds.), State Crime and Resistance (pp. 68–83). Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadarajah, S., & Sriskandarajah, D. (2005). Liberation Struggle or Terrorism? The Politics of Naming the LTTE. Third World Quarterly, 26(1), 87–100. Retrieved February 5, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0143659042000322928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nissan, E. (1989). History in the Making: Anuradhapura and the Sinhala Buddhist Nation. Social Analysis: The International Journal of Social and Cultural Practice, 25, 64–77. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23163052?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

    Google Scholar 

  • Northern Provincial Council. (2013). Sri Lanka Celebrates Its Fourth Victory Day on 18th May. Northern Provincial Council Website. http://www.np.gov.lk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2355:sri-lanka-celebrates-its-fourth-victory-day-on-18th-may&Itemid=129.

  • Perera, N. (1997). Territorial Spaces and National Identities: Representations of Sri Lanka. South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 20(1), 23–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perera, S. (2004). Living with Torturers, and Other Essays of Intervention: Sri Lankan Society, Culture and Politics in Perspective (4th ed.). Colombo: International Centre for Ethnic Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratap, A. (1984). Interview with Velupillai Pirabakaran, Leader of the Liberation Tigers for Tamil Eelam. Sunday Magazine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radhakrishnan, T. (2010). A Cultural Analysis of the Ethno-Political Conflict in Sri Lanka. Maritime Affairs: Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India, 6(2), 90–107. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09733159.2010.559787.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rajapaksa, M. (2005). Mahinda Chinthana: Victory for Sri Lanka, Presidential Election 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rajapaksa, M. (2009). President’s Speech to Parliament on the Defeat of LTTE. Official Website of the President of Sri Lanka.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rajasingham-Senanayake, D. (2009). Colonisation, Securitised Development and the Crisis of Civic Identity in Sri Lanka. In A. Pararajasingham (Ed.), Sri Lanka: 60 Years of ‘Independence’ and Beyond (pp. 329–359). Emmenbrücke: Centre for Just Peace and Democracy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rajasingham, K. T. (2010). Minister Wimal Weerawansa to Start Fast unto Death from Today in Front of the UN Complex. Asian Tribune.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rampton, D. (2007). Colonisation, Securitised Development and the Crisis of Civic Identity in Sri Lanka. In A. Parajasingham (Ed.), Sri Lanka: 60 Years of Independence (pp. 1–19). Emmenbrücke: Centre for Just Peace and Democracy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rampton, D. (2011). “Deeper Hegemony”: The Politics of Sinhala Nationalist Authenticity and the Failures of Power-Sharing in Sri Lanka. Commonwealth & Comparative Politics, 49(2), 245–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ranjith Perera, J. P. (2011). Winning an Unwinnable War: A Tribute to Our War Heroes. Nugegoda, Colombo: Sarasavi Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasaratnam, M. (2016). Tamils and the Nation: India and Sri Lanka Compared. London: C. Hurst & Co.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, B. M. (2008). Revolt in the JVP. Frontline. http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2509/stories/20080509250905400.htm.

  • Richmond, O. P. (2011). A Post-liberal Peace. Abingdon: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J. D. (1987). Social Mobility, Popular Ideology, and Collective Violence in Modern Sri Lanka. The Journal of Asian Studies, 46(3), 583. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2056900?origin=crossref.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J. D. (1990). Historical Images in the British Period. In J. Spencer (Ed.), Sri Lanka, History and the Roots of Conflict (pp. 87–106). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J. D., Spencer, J., & Uyangoda, J. (1998). Sri Lanka: Political Violence and Ethnic Conflict. American Psychologist, 53(7), 771–777. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0003-066X.53.7.771.

  • Samaranayake, G. (1991). Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka and Prospects of Management: An Empirical Inquiry. Terrorism and Political Violence, 3(2), 75–87. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546559108427105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samarasinghe, S. W. R. d. A. (1984). Sri Lanka in 1983: Ethnic Conflict and the Search for Solutions. Asian Survey, 24(2), 250–256. Retrieved February 13, 2017, from http://as.ucpress.edu/cgi/doi/10.2307/2644444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schrikker, A. (2007). Dutch and British Colonial Intervention 1780–1815: Expansion and Reform. Leiden: Brill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Satkunanathan, A. (2012). Whose Nation? Power, Agency, Gender and Tamil Nationalism. In A. Welikala (Ed.), Sri Lankan Republic at 40: Reflections on Constitutional History, Theory and Practice. Colombo: Centre for Policy Alternatives.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seoighe, R. (2015). Discourses of Victimization in Sri Lanka’s Civil War: Collective Memory, Legitimacy and Agency. Social and Legal Studies, 25(3), 355–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shastri, A. (2004). The Economy in a Time of Intense Civil War: Sri Lanka, 1994–2000. In D. Winslow & M. D. Woost (Eds.), Economy, Culture, and Civil War in Sri Lanka (pp. 73–94). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Somasundaram, D. (1998). Scarred Minds: The Psychological Impact of War on Sri Lankan Tamils. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, J. (1990). Sri Lanka: History and the Roots of Conflict. London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Stokke, K. (1998). Sinhalese and Tamil Nationalism as Post-colonial Political Projects from “Above”, 1948–1983. Political Geography, 17(1), 83–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sunday Leader. (2012). Wimal Calls for Boycott of US Products. The Sunday Leader.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunday Observer. (2008). Triad’s Api Wenuwen Api Bags Top Advertising Award. Sunday Observer. http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2008/10/12/new13.asp.

  • Tambiah, S. J. (1986). Sri Lanka: Ethnic Fratricide and the Dismantling of Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tambiah, S. J. (1992). Buddhism Betrayed?: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamil National Alliance. (2013). Full Text: TNA’s Northern Provincial Council Election Manifesto—2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamils Against Genocide. (2014). Sri Lanka’s “Rehabilitation” of the Liberation Tigers Tamil Eelam A Programme of Physical and Mental Pacification. London: Tamils Against Genocide.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiranagama, S. (2013). Claiming the State: Postwar Reconciliation in Sri Lanka. Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, 4(1), 93–116. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/humanity/v004/4.1.thiranagama01.html.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tjaden, J. D. (2012). The (Re-)Construction of “National Identity” Through Selective Memory and Mass Ritual Discourse: The Chilean Centenary, 1910. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism, 12(1), 45–63. Retrieved February 13, 2017, from http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1754-9469.2012.01156.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triad. (2013). Case Study: “Api Wenuwen Api”. Triad Website.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uyangoda, J. (2007). Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Changing Dynamics. Washington, DC: East-West Center Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters, J. (1995). Multi-religion on the Bus: Beyond “Influence” and “Syncretism” in the Study of Religious Meetings. In P. Jeganathan & Q. Ismail (Eds.), Unmaking the Nation: The Politics of Identity & History in Modern Sri Lanka (pp. 25–54). Colombo: Social Scientists Association of Sri Lanka.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welikala, A. (2008). A State of Permanent Crisis Constitutional Government, Fundamental Rights and States of Emergency in Sri Lanka. Colombo: Centre for Policy Alternatives.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wickramasinghe, N. (2009). After the War: A New Patriotism in Sri Lanka? The Journal of Asian Studies, 68(4), 1045–1054. Retrieved February 8, 2017, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/20619860?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickremasekara, D. (2010). Weerawansa’s Death Fast Ends; President Gives Him Glass of Water. http://www.sundaytimes.lk/100711/News/nws_03.html.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Seoighe, R. (2017). A History of War in the Post-colonial State. In: War, Denial and Nation-Building in Sri Lanka. Palgrave Studies in Compromise after Conflict. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56324-4_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56324-4_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-56323-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-56324-4

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics