Abstract
The use of radiotherapy (RT) in the treatment of bladder cancer has been decreasing through the years. There is no role of RT in carcinoma in situ and Ta and Tl tumors. However, irradiation may have a role in high-grade or recurrent T1 lesions. There is no prospective randomized trial comparing surgery with RT in muscle-invasive bladder cancer. In T2–T4a disease without lymph node (LN) involvement, RT can be combined with concurrent chemotherapy in medically fit patients. However, there is no rationale of RT in patients with LN or distant metastasis except for palliative reasons. The gross tumor volume (GTV), clinical target volume (CTV), planning target volume (PTV), and organs at risk (OAR) should be delineated separately in each slice based on the recommendations in the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU) reports 50 and 62. The only delineation guideline for the RT in bladder cancer has been reported by the Australian and New Zealand Faculty of Radiation Oncology Genito-Urinary Group .
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
van der Werf-Messing B, Hop WC. Carcinoma of the urinary bladder (category T1NxM0) treated either by radium implant or by transurethral resection only. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1981;7(3):299–303.
Van der Steen-Banasik EM, Visser AG, Reinders JG, Heijbroek RP, Idema JG, Janssen TG, et al. Saving bladders with brachytherapy: implantation technique and results. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002;53(3):622–9.
Rodel C, Grabenbauer GG, Kuhn R, Dunst J, Papadopoulos T, Schrott KM, et al. Invasive bladder cancer: organ preservation by radiochemotherapy. Front Radiat Ther Oncol. 2002;36:118–30.
Weiss C, Wolze C, Engehausen DG, Ott OJ, Krause FS, Schrott KM, et al. Radiochemotherapy after transurethral resection for high-risk T1 bladder cancer: an alternative to intravesical therapy or early cystectomy? J Clin Oncol. 2006;24(15):2318–24.
Coppin CM, Gospodarowicz MK, James K, Tannock IF, Zee B, Carson J, et al. Improved local control of invasive bladder cancer by concurrent cisplatin and preoperative or definitive radiation. The National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14(11):2901–7.
Hoskin PJ, Rojas AM, Bentzen SM, Saunders MI. Radiotherapy with concurrent carbogen and nicotinamide in bladder carcinoma. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(33):4912–8.
Kaufman DS, Winter KA, Shipley WU, Heney NM, Wallace HJ 3rd, Toonkel LM, et al. Phase I-II RTOG study (99-06) of patients with muscle-invasive bladder cancer undergoing transurethral surgery, paclitaxel, cisplatin, and twice-daily radiotherapy followed by selective bladder preservation or radical cystectomy and adjuvant chemotherapy. Urology. 2009;73(4):833–7.
Mak RH, Zietman AL, Heney NM, Kaufman DS, Shipley WU. Bladder preservation: optimizing radiotherapy and integrated treatment strategies. BJU Int. 2008;102(9 Pt B):1345–53.
Kaufman DS, Winter KA, Shipley WU, Heney NM, Chetner MP, Souhami L, et al. The initial results in muscle-invading bladder cancer of RTOG 95-06: phase I/II trial of transurethral surgery plus radiation therapy with concurrent cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil followed by selective bladder preservation or cystectomy depending on the initial response. Oncologist. 2000;5(6):471–6.
Stein JP, Lieskovsky G, Cote R, Groshen S, Feng AC, Boyd S, et al. Radical cystectomy in the treatment of invasive bladder cancer: long-term results in 1054 patients. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19(3):666–75.
Dalbagni G, Genega E, Hashibe M, Zhang ZF, Russo P, Herr H, et al. Cystectomy for bladder cancer: a contemporary series. J Urol. 2001;165(4):1111–6.
Efstathiou JA, Zietman A Coen JJ, Shipley WU. Bladder cancer. In: Gunderson LL, Tepper JE Clinical radiation oncology. 3rd ed. China: Elsevier Saunders; 2012. 1099–1123.
Measurements. ICoRUa. ICRU Report 50: prescribing, recording and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, Maryland, USA; 1993.
Measurements. ICoRUa. ICRU Report 62: prescribing, recording and reporting photon beam therapy (supplement to ICRU report 50). Bethesda, Maryland, USA; 1999.
Hindson BR, Turner SL, Millar JL, Foroudi F, Gogna NK, Skala M, et al. Australian & New Zealand Faculty of Radiation Oncology Genito-Urinary Group: 2011 consensus guidelines for curative radiotherapy for urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2012;56(1):18–30.
Brausi M, Collette L, Kurth K, van der Meijden AP, Oosterlinck W, Witjes JA, et al. Variability in the recurrence rate at first follow-up cystoscopy after TUR in stage Ta T1 transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: a combined analysis of seven EORTC studies. Eur Urol. 2002;41(5):523–31.
Foroudi F, Wong J, Haworth A, Baille A, McAlpine J, Rolfo A, et al. Offline adaptive radiotherapy for bladder cancer using cone beam computed tomography. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2009;53(2):226–33.
Richards KA, Parks GE, Badlani GH, Kader AK, Hemal AK, Pettus JA. Developing selection criteria for prostate-sparing cystectomy: a review of cystoprostatectomy specimens. Urology. 2010;75(5):1116–20.
Shen SS, Lerner SP, Muezzinoglu B, Truong LD, Amiel G, Wheeler TM. Prostatic involvement by transitional cell carcinoma in patients with bladder cancer and its prognostic significance. Hum Pathol. 2006;37(6):726–34.
Stein JP, Penson DF, SD W, Skinner DG. Pathological guidelines for orthotopic urinary diversion in women with bladder cancer: a review of the literature. J Urol. 2007;178(3 Pt 1):756–60.
Kassouf W, Agarwal PK, Herr HW, Munsell MF, Spiess PE, Brown GA, et al. Lymph node density is superior to TNM nodal status in predicting disease-specific survival after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer: analysis of pooled data from MDACC and MSKCC. J Clin Oncol. 2008;26(1):121–6.
Buscarini M, Josephson DY, Stein JP. Lymphadenectomy in bladder cancer: a review. Urol Int. 2007;79(3):191–9.
Herr HW, Faulkner JR, Grossman HB, Natale RB, deVere White R, Sarosdy MF, et al. Surgical factors influence bladder cancer outcomes: a cooperative group report. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22(14):2781–9.
Koppie TM, Vickers AJ, Vora K, Dalbagni G, Bochner BH. Standardization of pelvic lymphadenectomy performed at radical cystectomy: can we establish a minimum number of lymph nodes that should be removed? Cancer. 2006;107(10):2368–74.
Sengelov L, von der Maase H. Radiotherapy in bladder cancer. Radiother Oncol. 1999;52(1):1–14.
James ND, Hussain SA, Hall E, Jenkins P, Tremlett J, Rawlings C, et al. Radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy in muscle-invasive bladder cancer. N Engl J Med. 2012;366(16):1477–88.
Tunio MA, Hashmi A, Qayyum A, Mohsin R, Zaeem A. Whole-pelvis or bladder-only chemoradiation for lymph node-negative invasive bladder cancer: single-institution experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012;82(3):e457–62.
Turner SL, Swindell R, Bowl N, Marrs J, Brookes B, Read G, et al. Bladder movement during radiation therapy for bladder cancer: implications for treatment planning. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997;39(2):355–60.
Harris SJ, Buchanan RB. An audit and evaluation of bladder movements during radical radiotherapy. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 1998;10(4):262–4.
Sur RK, Clinkard J, Jones WG, Taylor RE, Close HJ, Chaturvedi A, et al. Changes in target volume during radiotherapy treatment of invasive bladder carcinoma. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 1993;5(1):30–3.
Graham J, Gee A, Hilton S, et al. Geometric uncertainties in radiotherapy of the prostate and bladder. In:Geometric uncertainties in radiotherapy. London: British Institute of Radiology; 2003.
Meijer GJ, Rasch C, Remeijer P, Lebesque JV. Three-dimensional analysis of delineation errors, setup errors, and organ motion during radiotherapy of bladder cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003;55(5):1277–87.
Roof KS, Mazal A, Sarkar S, et al. A three-dimensional CT based analysis of inter-fraction bladder motion during radiotherapeutic treatment of bladder cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004;60:S430.
Parsons JT, Million RR. Planned preoperative irradiation in the management of clinical stage B2-C (T3) bladder carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1988;14(4):797–810.
Cole CJ, Pollack A, Zagars GK, Dinney CP, Swanson DA, von Eschenbach AC. Local control of muscle-invasive bladder cancer: preoperative radiotherapy and cystectomy versus cystectomy alone. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995;32(2):331–40.
Zaghloul MS, Awwad HK, Akoush HH, Omar S, Soliman O, el Attar I. Postoperative radiotherapy of carcinoma in bilharzial bladder: improved disease free survival through improving local control. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1992;23(3):511–7.
Reisinger SA, Mohiuddin M, Mulholland SG. Combined pre- and postoperative adjuvant radiation therapy for bladder cancer – a ten year experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1992;24(3):463–8.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gultekin, M., Sari, S.Y., Hurmuz, P., Yazici, G., Akyol, F., Ozyigit, G. (2017). Target Volume Delineation Guidelines in Bladder Cancer. In: Ozyigit, G., Selek, U. (eds) Principles and Practice of Urooncology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56114-1_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56114-1_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-56113-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-56114-1
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)