Abstract
Cranial irradiation has an important role in the treatment of brain tumors either with curative intent or for palliation. Cranial irradiation has a unique application in prevention of distant metastasis to brain parenchyma, and prophylactic cranial irradiation may be carried out in selected patients at high risk of neoplastic cranial involvement. Brain is also an organ at risk during radiotherapy of tumors which are located in base of skull and in some head and neck cancers. Cranial irradiation in any condition can cause brain injuries that are classified into three groups based on the timing of their occurrence after radiation exposure: acute (during radiation or up to 6 weeks after radiation), early delayed or subacute (up to 6 months after radiation), and late delayed (6 months or more after the completion of radiation). However in more trials, brain injury simply is defined as acute (within 90 days of the commencement of therapy) and late reactions (after 90 days of the commencement of therapy) [1]. Reports indicate that patients that undergo standard fractionated cranial irradiation and stereotactic radiosurgery may have acute brain reactions in the range of 2–40% [1–12]. However, up to 50% of patients with high doses per fraction (more than 3 Gy) to a large part of the brain may develop acute encephalopathy [3, 13].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Lawrence YR, Wang M, Dicker AP, Andrews D, Curran WJ, Michalski JM et al (2011) Early toxicity predicts long-term survival in high-grade glioma. Br J Cancer 104(9):1365–1371
Goetz P, Ebinu JO, Roberge D, Zadeh G (2012) Current standards in the management of cerebral metastases. Int J Surg Oncol 2012:493426
Young DF, Posner JB, Chu F, Nisce L (1974) Rapid-course radiation therapy of cerebral metastases: results and complications. Cancer 34(4):1069–1076
Borgelt B, Gelber R, Larson M, Hendrickson F, Griffin T, Roth R (1981) Ultra-rapid high dose irradiation schedules for the palliation of brain metastases: final results of the first two studies by the radiation therapy oncology group. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 7(12):1633–1638
Harwood AR, Simpson WJ (1977) Radiation therapy of cerebral metastases: a randomized prospective clinical trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2(11):1091–1094
Rades D, Haatanen T, Schild SE, Dunst J (2007) Dose escalation beyond 30 grays in 10 fractions for patients with multiple brain metastases. Cancer 110(6):1345–1350
Vecht CJ, Haaxma-Reiche H, Noordijk EM, Padberg GW, Voormolen JH, Hoekstra FH et al (1993) Treatment of single brain metastasis: radiotherapy alone or combined with neurosurgery. Ann Neurol 33(6):583–590
Rades D, Bohlen G, Pluemer A, Veninga T, Hanssens P, Dunst J et al (2007) Stereotactic radiosurgery alone versus resection plus whole-brain radiotherapy for 1 or 2 brain metastases in recursive partitioning analysis class 1 and 2 patients. Cancer 109(12):2515–2521
O’Neill BP, Iturria NJ, Link MJ, Pollock BE, Ballman KV, O’Fallon JR (2003) A comparison of surgical resection and stereotactic radiosurgery in the treatment of solitary brain metastases. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 55(5):1169–1176
Andrews DW, Scott CB, Sperduto PW, Flanders AE, Gaspar LE, Schell MC et al (2004) Whole brain radiation therapy with or without stereotactic radiosurgery boost for patients with one to three brain metastases: phase III results of the RTOG 9508 randomised trial. Lancet 363(9422):1665–1672
Muacevic A, Wowra B, Siefert A, Tonn J-C, Steiger H-J, Kreth FW (2008) Microsurgery plus whole brain irradiation versus gamma knife surgery alone for treatment of single metastases to the brain: a randomized controlled multicentre phase III trial. J Neuro-Oncol 87(3):299–307
Malmström A, Grønberg BH, Marosi C, Stupp R, Frappaz D, Schultz H et al (2012) Temozolomide versus standard 6-week radiotherapy versus hypofractionated radiotherapy in patients older than 60 years with glioblastoma: the Nordic randomised, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 13(9):916–926
Posner JB (1995) Neurologic complications of cancer. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Ch’ien LT, Aur RJ, Stagner S, Cavallo K, Wood A, Goff J et al (1980) Long-term neurological implications of somnolence syndrome in children with acute lymphocytic leukemia. Ann Neurol 8(3):273–277
Freeman J, Johnston P, Voke J (1973) Somnolence after prophylactic cranial irradiation in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br Med J 4(5891):523–525
Garwicz S, Aronson A, Elmqvist D, Landberg T (1975) Postirradiation syndrome and EEG findings in children with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Acta Paediatr Scand 64(3):399–403
Siemes H, Rating D, Siegert M, Hanefeld F, Müller S, Gadner H et al (1980) Changes of CSF-protein pattern in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia during prophylactic CNS therapy (Berlin protocol). Med Pediatr Oncol 8(1):25–34
Parker D, Malpas J, Sandland R, Sheaff P, Freeman J, Paxton A (1978) Outlook following “somnolence syndrome” after prophylactic cranial irradiation. Br Med J 1(6112):554
Littman P, Rosenstock J, Gale G, Krisch RE, Meadows A, Sather H et al (1984) The somnolence syndrome in leukemic children following reduced daily dose fractions of cranial radiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 10(10):1851–1853
Rahman AA, Mannan M, Sadeque S (2008) Acute and long-term neurological complications in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Bangladesh Med Res Counc Bull 34(3):90–93
Parvez K, Parvez A, Zadeh G (2014) The diagnosis and treatment of pseudoprogression, radiation necrosis and brain tumor recurrence. Int J Mol Sci 15(7):11832–11846
Brandsma D, Stalpers L, Taal W, Sminia P, van den Bent MJ (2008) Clinical features, mechanisms, and management of pseudoprogression in malignant gliomas. Lancet Oncol 9(5):453–461
Brandes AA, Franceschi E, Tosoni A, Blatt V, Pession A, Tallini G et al (2008) MGMT promoter methylation status can predict the incidence and outcome of pseudoprogression after concomitant radiochemotherapy in newly diagnosed glioblastoma patients. J Clin Oncol 26(13):2192–2197
Boldrey E, Sheline G (1966) Delayed transitory clinical manifestations after radiation treatment of intracranial tumors. Acta Radiol Ther Phys Biol 5:5–10
Faithfull S, Brada M (1998) Somnolence syndrome in adults following cranial irradiation for primary brain tumours. Clin Oncol 10(4):250–254
Armstrong C, Ruffer J, Corn B, DeVries K, Mollman J (1995) Biphasic patterns of memory deficits following moderate-dose partial-brain irradiation: neuropsychologic outcome and proposed mechanisms. J Clin Oncol 13(9):2263–2271
Rider W (1963) Radiation damage to the brain—a new syndrome. J Can Assoc Radiol 14:67–69
Kramer S, Lee KF (1974) Complications of radiation therapy: the central nervous system. Semin Roentgenol 9:75–83
Liang BC (1999) Radiation-associated neurotoxicity. Neurol Clin 35:54–58
Walker AJ, Ruzevick J, Malayeri AA, Rigamonti D, Lim M, Redmond KJ et al (2014) Postradiation imaging changes in the CNS: how can we differentiate between treatment effect and disease progression? Future Oncol 10(7):1277–1297
Uzal D, Özyar E, Hayran M, Zorlu F, Atahan L, Yetkin S (1998) Reduced incidence of the somnolence syndrome after prophylactic cranial irradiation in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Radiother Oncol 48(1):29–32
McTyre E, Scott J, Chinnaiyan P (2013) Whole brain radiotherapy for brain metastasis. Surg Neurol Int 4(Suppl 4):S236
Kiebert G, Curran D, Aaronson N, Bolla M, Menten J, Rutten E et al (1998) Quality of life after radiation therapy of cerebral low-grade gliomas of the adult: results of a randomised phase III trial on dose response (EORTC trial 22844). Eur J Cancer 34(12):1902–1909
Garden AS, Maor MH, Yung WA, Bruner JM, Woo SY, Moser RP et al (1991) Outcome and patterns of failure following limited-volume irradiation for malignant astrocytomas. Radiother Oncol 20(2):99–110
Chao JH, Phillips R, Nickson JJ (1954) Roentgen-ray therapy of cerebral metastases. Cancer 7(4):682–689
Mandell LR, Walker RW, Steinherz P, Fuks Z (1989) Reduced incidence of the somnolence syndrome in leukemic children with steroid coverage during prophylactic cranial radiation therapy. Results of a pilot study. Cancer 63(10):1975–1978
Walker MD, Green SB, Byar DP, Alexander E Jr, Batzdorf U, Brooks WH et al (1980) Randomized comparisons of radiotherapy and nitrosoureas for the treatment of malignant glioma after surgery. N Engl J Med 303(23):1323–1329
Bleehen N, Stenning SA (1991) Medical Research Council trial of two radiotherapy doses in the treatment of grades 3 and 4 astrocytoma. The Medical Research Council brain tumour working party. Br J Cancer 64(4):769
Taphoorn M, Stupp R, Coens C, Osoba D, Kortmann R, van den Bent M et al (2005) European organisation for research and treatment of cancer brain tumour group; EORTC radiotherapy group; national cancer institute of Canada clinical trials group. Health-related quality of life in patients with glioblastoma: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 6(12):937–944
Kocher PM, Eich H-T, Semrau R, Güner SA, Müller R-P (2005) Phase I/II trial of simultaneous whole-brain irradiation and dose-escalating topotecan for brain metastases. Strahlenther Onkol 181(1):20–25
Abrey LE, Christodoulou C (2001) Temozolomide for treating brain metastases. Semin Oncol 28:34–42
Suh JH, Stea B, Nabid A, Kresl JJ, Fortin A, Mercier J-P et al (2006) Phase III study of efaproxiral as an adjunct to whole-brain radiation therapy for brain metastases. J Clin Oncol 24(1):106–114
Powell C, Guerrero D, Sardell S, Cumins S, Wharram B, Traish D et al (2011) Somnolence syndrome in patients receiving radical radiotherapy for primary brain tumours: a prospective study. Radiother Oncol 100(1):131–136
Leibel SA, Sheline GE (1987) Radiation therapy for neoplasms of the brain. J Neurosurg 66(1):1–22
Sanghvi D (2015) Post-treatment imaging of high-grade gliomas. Indian J Radiol Imaging 25(2):102
Williams RL, Karacan IE, Moore CA (1998) Sleep disorders: diagnosis and treatment. Wiley, New York
Faithfull S (1991) Patients’ experiences following cranial radiotherapy: a study of the somnolence syndrome. J Adv Nurs 16(8):939–946
Druckmann A (1929) Schlafsucht als Folge der Röntgenbestrahlung. Beitrag zur Strahlenempfindlichkeit des Gehirns. Strahlentherapie 33(382–84):268
Vern TZ, Salvi S (2009) Somnolence syndrome and fever in pediatric patients with cranial irradiation. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 31(2):118–120
Kelsey CR, Marks LB (2006) Somnolence syndrome after focal radiation therapy to the pineal region: case report and review of the literature. J Neuro-Oncol 78(2):153–156
Ballonoff A. (2016) Acute complications of cranial irradiation. Available from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/acute-complications-of-cranial-irradiation. Accessed 10 Aug 2016
Pampiglione G (1974) Letter: somnolence in children with acute leukemia. Br Med J 1(5899):158
Tallet AV, Azria D, Barlesi F, Spano J-P, Carpentier AF, Gonçalves A et al (2012) Neurocognitive function impairment after whole brain radiotherapy for brain metastases: actual assessment. Radiat Oncol 7(1):1
Halperin EC, Brady LW, Wazer DE, Perez CA (2013) Perez & Brady’s principles and practice of radiation oncology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA
Taal W, Brandsma D, de Bruin HG, Bromberg JE, Swaak-Kragten AT, Sillevis Smitt PA et al (2008) Incidence of early pseudo-progression in a cohort of malignant glioma patients treated with chemoirradiation with temozolomide. Cancer 113(2):405–410
Zeng Q-S, Li C-F, Liu H, Zhen J-H, Feng D-C (2007) Distinction between recurrent glioma and radiation injury using magnetic resonance spectroscopy in combination with diffusion-weighted imaging. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 68(1):151–158
Cox JD, Stetz J, Pajak TF (1995) Toxicity criteria of the radiation therapy oncology group (RTOG) and the European organization for research and treatment of cancer (EORTC). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 31(5):1341–1346
Faithfull S (1992) The diary method for nursing research: a study of somnolence syndrome. Eur J Cancer Care 1(2):13–18
Ryken TC, McDermott M, Robinson PD, Ammirati M, Andrews DW, Asher AL et al (2010) The role of steroids in the management of brain metastases: a systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J Neuro-Oncol 96(1):103–114
Hempen C, Weiss E, Hess CF (2002) Dexamethasone treatment in patients with brain metastases and primary brain tumors: do the benefits outweigh the side-effects? Support Care Cancer 10(4):322–328
Woodford K (2007) Somnolence syndrome after cranial irradiation: a literature review. The Radiographer 54(3):30
Proctor S, Kernahan J, Taylor P (1981) Depression as component of post-cranial irradiation somnolence syndrome. Lancet 317(8231):1215–1216
Roth P, Wick W, Weller M (2010) Steroids in neurooncology: actions, indications, side-effects. Curr Opin Neurol 23(6):597–602
Alberti E, Hartmann A, Schütz H-J, Schreckenberger F (1978) The effect of large doses of dexamethasone on the cerebrospinal fluid pressure in patients with supratentorial tumors. J Neurol 217(3):173–181
Jarden J, Dhawan V, Moeller J, Strother S, Rottenberg D (1989) The time course of steroid action on blood-to-brain and blood-to-tumor transport of 82Rb: a positron emission tomographic study. Ann Neurol 25(3):239–245
Soffietti R, Cornu P, Delattre J, Grant R, Graus F, Grisold W et al (2006) EFNS guidelines on diagnosis and treatment of brain metastases: report of an EFNS task force. Eur J Neurol 13(7):674–681
Miller JD, Leech P (1975) Effects of mannitol and steroid therapy on intracranial volume-pressure relationships in patients. J Neurosurg 42(3):274–281
Nahaczewski AE, Fowler SB, Hariharan S (2004) Dexamethasone therapy in patients with brain tumors-a focus on tapering. J Neurosurg Nurs 36(6):340–343
Vecht CJ, Hovestadt A, Verbiest H, Van Vliet J, Van Putten W (1994) Dose-effect relationship of dexamethasone on Karnofsky performance in metastatic brain tumors a randomized study of doses of 4, 8, and 16 mg per day. Neurology 44(4):675
Dietrich J, Rao K, Pastorino S, Kesari S (2011) Corticosteroids in brain cancer patients: benefits and pitfalls. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 4(2):233–242
BCCA protocol summary for dexamethasone as treatment for cerebral edema or CNS swelling. http://www.bccancer.bc.ca/chemotherapy-protocolssite/Documents/Supportive%20Care/SCDEXA_Protocol_1May09.pdf
Ruegg S (2002) Dexamethasone/phenytoin interactions: neurooncological concerns. Swiss Med Wkly 132(29/30):425–426
Lawson LA, Blouin RA, Smith RB, Rapp RP, Young AB (1981) Phenytoin-dexamethasone interaction: a previously unreported observation. Surg Neurol 16(1):23–24
Weissman DE, Janjan NA, Erickson B, Wilson FJ, Greenberg M, Ritch PS et al (1991) Twice-daily tapering dexamethasone treatment during cranial radiation for newly diagnosed brain metastases. J Neuro-Oncol 11(3):235–239
Szabo GC, Winkler SR (1995) Withdrawal of glucocorticoid therapy in neurosurgical patients. Surg Neurol 44(5):498
Guidelines for use of steroids in cancer patients. Available from ttps://www.researchgate.net/file.PostFileLoader.html?id=569a63f35f7f71a5da8b4587&assetKey=AS%3A318546062577664%401452958707609
Kostaras X, Cusano F, Kline G, Roa W, Easaw J (2014) Use of dexamethasone in patients with high-grade glioma: a clinical practice guideline. Curr Oncol 21(3):e493
Recht L, Mechtler LL, Wong ET, O’Connor PC, Rodda BE (2013) Steroid-sparing effect of corticorelin acetate in peritumoral cerebral edema is associated with improvement in steroid-induced myopathy. J Clin Oncol 31(9):1182–1187
Tjuvajev J, Uehara H, Desai R, Beattie B, Matei C, Zhou Y et al (1996) Corticotropin-releasing factor decreases vasogenic brain edema. Cancer Res 56(6):1352–1360
Villalona-Calero M, Eckardt J, Burris H, Kraynak M, Fields-Jones S, Bazan C et al (1998) A phase I trial of human corticotropin-releasing factor (hCRF) in patients with peritumoral brain edema. Ann Oncol 9(1):71–77
Moliterno JA, Henry E, Pannullo SC (2009) Corticorelin acetate injections for the treatment of peritumoral brain edema. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 18(9):1413–1419
Vredenburgh JJ, Cloughesy T, Samant M, Prados M, Wen PY, Mikkelsen T et al (2010) Corticosteroid use in patients with glioblastoma at first or second relapse treated with bevacizumab in the BRAIN study. Oncologist 15(12):1329–1334
Batchelor TT, Sorensen AG, di Tomaso E, Zhang W-T, Duda DG, Cohen KS et al (2007) AZD2171, a pan-VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor, normalizes tumor vasculature and alleviates edema in glioblastoma patients. Cancer Cell 11(1):83–95
Portnow J, Suleman S, Grossman SA, Eller S, Carson K (2002) A cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitor compared with dexamethasone in a survival study of rats with intracerebral 9L gliosarcomas. Neuro-Oncology 4(1):22–25
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sourati, A., Ameri, A., Malekzadeh, M. (2017). Radiation Brain Injury. In: Acute Side Effects of Radiation Therapy. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55950-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55950-6_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-55949-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-55950-6
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)