Abstract
This essay discusses modern traditional or rural African horse racing in South Africa, with a focus on the relationship between its history and current realties, and the tension between the global and the local. This chapter shows how the segregationist state increasingly excluded Africans from participating in state-sanctioned commercial horse racing (other than as punters). Some Africans used the racing world to challenge Apartheid’s authoritarian codes and, after 1994, to create new identities in democratic South Africa. Moreover, the state drove African horse racing underground in the rural areas and kept it informal where it was permitted, but this chapter demonstrates how Africans resisted this suppression by keeping a lively rural racing (and betting) tradition alive. This led to vernacular racing traditions, which drew on the forms and structures of the commercial sector, but adapted them over times for local conditions and politico-cultural purposes. The chapter’s key argument is about global “human-horse cultures” more broadly: that cultures of horsemanship might have a localised, vernacular flavour—but that they are generally a fusion of ideas and practices from various sources and cultures, that changes over time. This chapter will show that there were indeed vernacular traditions informing local horse cultures, but there has been deep cultural connectedness and historical links between “white” and “black” horse cultures.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
For discussions of racing as global industry, see McManus et al. (2013).
- 4.
Cassidy (2007, 194).
- 5.
Huggins, “The Proto-globalisation of Horseracing”, 368. See also Chris McConville (2013) for more on global–local tensions.
- 6.
Author’s ethnographic fieldwork, Mongolia, 2013.
- 7.
Connell (2013).
- 8.
Thompson and Adelman (2013) have called for multi-disciplinary research teams to explore such complex subjects, and also explore the rich seams offered by comparative approaches.
- 9.
A political party banned by the South African government 1960–90, the ANC won a landslide victory in the first democratic elections in 1994 and its leader Nelson Mandela became president.
- 10.
Jack (2005).
- 11.
“ANC’s arch capitalist”, Sunday Times, 4 March 1990.
- 12.
Moya (2005).
- 13.
Siwani (1978).
- 14.
Mmushi (2004).
- 15.
Address by President Jacob Zuma, at the Soweto International Conference on Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development Conference, University of Johannesburg, Soweto Campus, 15 May 2012, http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?id=9594.
- 16.
Mabanga (2007).
- 17.
- 18.
Mtshali (2008).
- 19.
There have been recent calls to stop depicting the global racing world as solely a “white, Anglophile upper class sport”, and include a look at jockeys of colour, the pivotal role of the middle classes, racing in China, and the Middle Eastern Origins of the thoroughbred racehorse itself (Cassidy 2013).
- 20.
See Adhikari (2005). The term “coloured” refers to mixed race South Africans. Terms such as “non-white”, “non-European”, “Bantu”, and “coloured” are products of South Africa’s highly racialised history which witnessed the strict classification of people along racial lines (giving priority to white hegemony).
- 21.
Cape Archives Repository (KAB) PAS 3/1, BT 3/1, Grahamstown.
- 22.
KAB PAS 3/2, BT 35/1, Glen Grey, 1919.
- 23.
KAB PAS 3/1, B T 18/1, Calvinia; KAB PAS 3/1, BT 15/1 Butterworth Betting Ordinance, 1913; KAB CMT 3/909, No. 153, Elliotdale, 1914; KAB PAS 3/1, BT 11/1, Bedford; KAB PAS 3/1, BT 9/1, Bathurst; KAB PAS 3/1, BT 12/1, Bizana; KAB PAS 3/1, BT 13/1, Bredasdorp; KAB PAS 3/1, BT 7/1, Barkly East.
- 24.
See KAB, CMT, 3/909. No. 753. “Application of United Native Race Club, Matatiele”, c.1914.
- 25.
KAB, PAS, 3/4, BT 87A/1, Qumbu. Horse racing and betting (Native Races).
- 26.
There was uneven application of the rules and some subversion was managed. There is evidence to suggest, for example, that at least until 1969, there were some black trainers in the Orange Free State.
- 27.
Beinart (1987).
- 28.
Crais (1998).
- 29.
“No peace for the people of Tsolo”, Mail & Guardian, 1 August 1997; Jeff Peires, “Unsocial Bandits: The Stock Thieves of Qumbu and Their Enemies," (paper presented to conference on "Democracy: Popular Precedents, Practice, Culture,” University of the Witwatersrand, 13–15 July 1994).
- 30.
KAB, PAS, Vol: 3/4, File: Qumbu. Horse Racing and Betting (Native Races).
- 31.
KAB, PAS (1926).
- 32.
For example, the Population Registration Act (1950) required that each inhabitant of South Africa be classified with his or her racial characteristics.
- 33.
- 34.
Craven (1979).
- 35.
“Sporting Chance”, Pretoria News, 19 December 1979.
- 36.
“Odd status of South Africa’s Japanese”, Sarasota Journal, 12 March 1970. “Now South Africa bans ‘white’ Japanese Jockey”, Sydney Morning Herald, 24 February 1970.
- 37.
- 38.
Cape Times, 24 February 1970.
- 39.
“The Wheel Turns”, The Argus, 9 January 1980.
- 40.
“The Wheel Turns”, The Argus, 9 January 1980; “Change, permit by painful permit”, Sunday Times, 16 December 1979.
- 41.
Huggins (2000).
- 42.
- 43.
Religious affiliation n the United Kingdom, for example, some wealthier Jews owned racehorses but (with the exception of the Rothschilds) they were largely barred from Jockey Club membership (Huggins 2012).
- 44.
Birke and Brandt (2009).
- 45.
Butler and Charles (2012), see 690.
- 46.
Alcock (1978).
- 47.
Maynard (2013).
- 48.
For example, in 1900, white jockeys in New York boxed in black jockeys, even forcing them into the rails. Joe Drape (2006)
- 49.
- 50.
Ashe (1988). In 1969 Ashe was denied a visa by the Apartheid state and started raising awareness about its wrongs. He later received a visa to compete in the 1973 Open—the only black player. By 1983, he co-chaired the committee Artists and Athletes Against Apartheid.
- 51.
Prior to 1994, all forms of gambling other than horseracing and casinos in the so-called “homelands” were illegal in South Africa.
- 52.
Kamau (2013).
- 53.
Thiselton (2015). Racing is controlled nationally by two bodies: Phumelela Gaming and Leisure Limited (in the Free State, Northern Cape, Eastern Cape and Gauteng) and Gold Circle (in the Western Cape and Kwazulu-Natal). http://www.southafrica.info/about/sport/horseracing.htm#.VwtcI5x94dU#ixzz45VKNGpiD. Moreover, there are several horseracing bodies: the National Horseracing Authority (formerly the Jockey Club of Southern Africa), the Racing Trust, the Racehorse Trainers Association, the SA Jockeys Association, the South African Horse Import–Export Council, The Thoroughbred Breeders Association, and the National Horse Trust.
- 54.
Thiselton (2015).
- 55.
Winters (2008).
- 56.
“Academy to train black jockeys”, The Evening Post, 10 July 1979.
- 57.
- 58.
The first black jockey to ride in that race was Gift Funeka, in 2000.
- 59.
“The race of his life”, The Star, 9 July 2013.
- 60.
Kamau (2013).
- 61.
ANC Daily News Briefing, Thursday 13 July 1995 @ MANDELA-HORSE MASERU, http://www.anc.org.za/anc/newsbrief/1995/news0713.
- 62.
“Iph’iNtombi horse farm in royalty deal”, The Weekender, 4 April 2009.
- 63.
Williams (2010).
- 64.
- 65.
She was the first black person to breed thoroughbred horses commercially in South Africa. Mkamba (2012). http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/kwazulu-natal/sas-only-female-horse-breeder-1339854.
- 66.
“Iph’iNtombi horse farm in royalty deal”, The Weekender, 4 April 2009.
- 67.
Gevisser (1996).
- 68.
Flanagan (2009).
- 69.
Coan (2009).
- 70.
Stoddart (1988), see 652.
- 71.
- 72.
“Serious Allegations Against Race Authority”, The Sporting Post, 4 September 2014, http://www.sportingpost.co.za/2014/09/kema-phumelela-serious-allegations-against-race-authority-75903/; NHA In Kema Spotlight, The Sporting Post, 24 June 2013. http://www.sportingpost.co.za/2013/06/phindi-kema-2/. Lyse Comins, “Horse race fight to go to Concourt”,DAILYNEWS/NEWS/.
- 73.
It would be glib to dismiss opposition to her as simply the white old boy’s club closing ranks—certainly there are valid criticisms to be levelled at her ideas and initiatives. But perhaps her vaulting ambition and hubris are necessary to a black woman breaking in from the outside.
- 74.
- 75.
- 76.
“Iph’iNtombi horse farm in royalty deal”, The Weekender, 4 April 2009.
- 77.
Balfour (1895).
- 78.
This paragraph drawn from Swart (2010 ).
- 79.
Coan (2011).
- 80.
President Thabo Mbeki held that such an African Renaissance to be the key driver of a post-Apartheid intellectual and ideological agenda.
- 81.
“Dundee July is ‘our pride’”. See also, the “Socio-Economic Assessment of the 2012 Dundee July Event”, 12 November 2012, KZN Department of Sports and Recreation.
- 82.
Hlongwane (2011a).
- 83.
Telephonic interview with Bheki Ncube, 5 April 2016.
- 84.
Hlongwane (2011b).
- 85.
Not unlike the trippel.
- 86.
- 87.
Talley (2015).
- 88.
Graham (2015).
- 89.
Dundee Rural Horse-Riding Festival, July 2006, http://www.kzndsr.gov.za/EventsProjects/Recreation/DundeeRuralHorseRidingFestival.aspx.
- 90.
Mathomane (2015).
- 91.
Nyaka (2013).
- 92.
Sifile (2015).
- 93.
Sifile (2015). Mike Mthembu, event organiser, noted: “They are not progressive… They don’t disturb white people’s horse-jumping events”.
- 94.
“Traditional horseracing into stride”, The New Age, 19 March 2013. This fresh impetus following the resolutions of a 2013 tourism imbizo at Walter Sisulu University’s Butterworth campus, but in fact the state has supported such initiatives for the last decade.
- 95.
“Traditional horseracing into stride”, The New Age, 19 March 2013.
- 96.
Elizabeth Donaldson, “Kings of the wind”, Leader, 84–87, see p. 85.
- 97.
“Status of Traditional Horse Racing (THR) in the Eastern Cape”, Draft Final Report, ECGBB—12/13—RFQ—10. Commissioned by the Eastern Cape Gambling and Betting Board.
- 98.
Elizabeth Donaldson, “Kings of the wind”, Leader, 84–87, see p. 87.
- 99.
Tyali (2004).
- 100.
Anderson (1983).
- 101.
Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983).
- 102.
Triple is sometimes spelled “tripple” or, in Afrikaans, trippel.
- 103.
Swart, Riding High, p.33.
- 104.
Guy (2013).
- 105.
There are also Umkhwelo or endurance races, usually using local horses believed endowed with more stamina than thoroughbreds.
- 106.
Elizabeth Donaldson, “Kings of the wind”, Progressive Leader, 84–87, see p.86.
- 107.
Feni (2005).
- 108.
Equine purity may work as a proxy for forbidden discussions of human purity. I explore this in Swart, Riding High.
- 109.
“Traditional horseracing into stride”, The New Age, 19 March 2013.
- 110.
Christie (2010).
- 111.
Gish-Jen quoted in Cheng (2004).
- 112.
Hayes (1900).
- 113.
He would request local farmers to bring in semi-wild or incorrigible horses that he would work in front of the crowd, and offer breaking lessons for men, riding lessons for ladies or sometimes, simply, a circus style spectacle.
- 114.
Equimax is a veterinary-grade dewormer. From Swart, Riding High, p.xiii.
- 115.
Saint Molakeng, “Youth Day events”, Sowetan, 5 June 2000.
References
Adhikari, M. (2005). Not white enough, not black enough: Racial in the South African coloured community. Athens: Ohio University Press.
Africa Race Group Website. http://africaracegroup.com/index.html
African Betting Clan Website. http://www.africanbettingclan.com/index.php/kunena/abc-forum/18782-john-freeman-on-phindi-kema?start=20
Alcock, A. (1978). They’re off! The story of the first girl jump jockeys (p. 2). London: J.A. Allen.
ANC Daily News Briefing. (1995, July 13, Thursday). MANDELA-HORSE MASERU. http://www.anc.org.za/anc/newsbrief/1995/news0713
Anderson, B. (1983). Imagined communities. Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. London: Verso.
Anderson, K. (1997). A walk on the wild side: A critical geography of domestication. Progress in Human Geography, 21(4), 463–485.
Ashe, A. (1988). A hard road to glory: A history of the American–American Athlete, 1619–1918. New York: Warner.
Balfour, A. B. (1895). Twelve hundred miles in a waggon (Vol. 56). London: Edward Arnold.
Beinart, W. (1987). Conflict in Qumbu: Rural consciousness, ethnicity and violence in the colonial Transkei, 1880–1913. In W. Beinart & C. Bundy (Eds.), Hidden struggles in rural South Africa: Politics & popular movements in the Transkei and Eastern Cape, 1890–1930. London: James Currey.
Birke, L., & Brandt, K. (2009). Mutual corporeality: Gender and human/horse relationships. In Women’s studies international forum (Vol. 32, pp. 189–197).
Booth, D. (1998). The race game—Sport and politics in South Africa. UK: Frank Cass Publishers.
Butler, D., & Charles, N. (2012). Exaggerated femininity and tortured masculinity: Embodying gender in the horseracing industry. The Sociological Review, 60, 676–695.
Campbell Collections, University of KwaZulu-Natal, C52-281.
Cape Archives Repository (KAB) PAS 3/1, BT 3/1, Grahamstown.
Case, C. (1991). The backstretch: Racing and the American dream. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Cassidy, R. (Ed.). (2013). The Cambridge companion to horseracing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cassidy, R. (2007). Horse people: Thoroughbred culture in Lexington and Newmarket (pp. A14–A21). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.
Cheng, V. (2004). Inauthentic: The anxiety over culture and identity (p. 2). USA: Rutgers University Press.
Christie, S. (2010, September 10). Are horses being stolen for racing? Farmers Weekly.
Coan, S. (2009, May 2). Chiefs in the saddle with horse-racing venture. Witness.
Coan, S. (2011, March 29). On a horse and a prayer. Witness.
Connell, R. (2013). Using southern theory: Decolonizing social thought in theory, research and application. Planning Theory, 1–14.
Crais, C. (1998). Of men, magic and the law: Popular justice and the political imagination in South Africa. Journal of Social History, 32, 49–72.
Craven, D. (1979, November 9). There’s no holding back—Racial laws in sport must go. To The Point.
Dimbaza, S. (2006, November 11). Race on to saddle up black jockeys. The Weekend Post.
Donaldson, E. (2011) “Kings of the wind”, Progressive Leader (pp. 84–87).
Drape, J. (2006). Black Maestro: The epic life of an American legend. William Morrow/HarperCollins.
Dundee Rural Horse-Riding Festival. (July 2006). http://www.kzndsr.gov.za/EventsProjects/Recreation/DundeeRuralHorseRidingFestival.aspx
Einarsson, S. Ö. (2010). The role of the Icelandic horse in icelandic history and its image in the Icelandic media. BA, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Akureyri.
Feni, L. (2005, November 26). Indigenous hooves raise dust in the EC. Daily dispatch.
Flanagan, L. (2009, April 29). Stud deal has royal connections. The Star.
Gevisser, M. (1996, September 13). That other Holomisa. Mail & Guardian.
Graham, R. (2015). Human-animal relations and the celebration of place-identity: A case study of the scone racing carnival, New South Wales. Geographical Research, 1–8.
Guy, D. (2013, July 20). Dundee may put traditional horse racing on the map. Saturday Star.
Hayes, M. H. (1900). Among horses in South Africa (p. 194). London: R.A. Everett.
Hedenborg, S. (2015). Gender and sports within the equine sector—A comparative perspective. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 32(4), 551–564.
Hedenborg, S., Hedenborg White, M. (2012). Changes and variations in patterns of gender relations in equestrian sports during the second half of the twentieth century. Sport in Society, 15(3), 302–319.
Helgadóttir, G. (2006). The culture of horsemanship and horse-based tourism in Iceland. Current Issues in Tourism, 9(6), 535–548.
Helgadóttir, G., & Dashper, K. (2016). “Dear international guests and friends of the Icelandic horse”: Experience, meaning and belonging at a niche sporting event. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 1–20
Hlongwane, A. (2011, July 24). Firing up Dundee. Sunday Tribune.
Hlongwane, A. (2011, July 24). Traditional horse riding event keeps pulling in more and more spectators every year. Sunday Independent.
Hobsbawm, E. J., & Ranger, T. O. (1983). The invention of tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huggins, M. (2000) Sport and the British Upper Classes c.1500–2000: A Historiographic Overview. Sport in History, 28, 3, 364–388.
Huggins, M. (2008). The Proto-globalisation of Horseracing, 1730–1900: Anglo-American interconnections. Sport in History, 29(3), 367–391.
Huggins, M. (2012). Racing, betting, anti-semitism and English Jewry 1800–1939. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 29, 11.
Jack, V. (2005, June 19). A day to honour the venerable fathers of black business. Sunday Independent.
KAB, PAS. Horse Racing and Betting. (Native Races). Magistrate, Qumbu, to the Office of the province of the Cape of Good Hope (Vol: 3/4, File: Qumbu) 29 December 1926.
Kamau, E. (2013, August 7). Black participation in horse racing gets on track. Business Day.
Kawasaki, S. (2002). The Policy of Apartheid and the Japanese in the Republic of South Africa (vol. 2). http://www.tsukuba-g.ac.jp/library/kiyou/2002/2.KAWASAKI.pdf
Knight, R. (2011, August 5). Search for talented jockeys in Soweto. The Citizen.
Mabanga, T. (2007, April 29). Still making dreams come true at 82. Sunday Times.
Macdonald, I. (2007). Horse breeder goes for gold. South Africa—The Good News, September 26, 2007. http://www.sagoodnews.co.za/categories/41-benchmarking-progress/219-horse-breeder-goes-for-gold.html
Mathomane, N. (2015, July 25). Women jockeys at Dundee July a first. The Independent on Saturday.
Maynard, J. (2013). Aborigines and the ‘Sport of Kings’: Aboriginal jockeys in Australian racing history (pp. 6–28). Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press.
McConville, C. (2013). Horseracing: Local traditions and global connections. In R. Cassidy (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Horseracing. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
McManus, P., Albrecht, G., & Graham, R. (eds). (2013). The Global Horseracing Industry Social, economic, environmental and ethical perspectives. London and New York: Routledge.
McManus, P., Graham, R., & Ruse, K. (2014). The construction of human-animal relations. National Jumps Day 2013 at Te Rapa, Hamilton, New Zealand. New Zealand Geographer, 70(3), 190–200.
Mkamba, L. (2012, July 12). SA’s only female horse breeder. The Mercury. http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/kwazulu-natal/sas-only-female-horse-breeder-1339854
Mmushi, T. (2004, July 8). SA’s first black licenced racehorse trainer. Business Day.
Molakeng, S. (2000, June 5). Youth day events. Sowetan.
Moya, F.-N. (2005, August 17). I will die with my boots on. Mail & Guardian.
Mtshali, L. Z. (2008, November 9). Maponya says mall is highlight of long career. Sunday Times.
Nauright, J., Parris, C. (Eds.). (2012). Sports around the World: History, Culture, and Practice, ABC-Clio (p. 90).
Nyaka, F. (2013, July 26). Horseracing association is a big winner. The New Age.
Perry, A. (2007, August 29). Retail Renegade: Richard Maponya. Time.
Pitman, J. (2011, August). Africa race international: Phindi Kema. Entrepreneur Magazine. http://www.entrepreneurmag.co.za/advice/women-entrepreneurs/women-entrepreneur-successes/africa-race-international-phindi-kema/
Riess, S. A. (2011). The American jockey, 1865–1910. Transatlantica, 2.
Roberts, L.-J., & MacLean, M. (2012). Women in the weighing room: Gendered discourses of exclusion in English flat racing. Sport in Society, 15(3), 320–334.
Sifile, L. (2015). Race Row in Horse Racing. Sowetan.
Siwani, G. (1978, May 24). I don’t lose any sleep over UBC. The Post.
South Africa Official Website. http://www.southafrica.info/about/sport/horseracing.htm#.VwtcI5x94dU#ixzz45VKNGpiD
Stoddart, B. (1988). Sport, cultural imperialism, and colonial response in the British empire. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 30(4), 649–673.
Swart, S. (2010). Riding high—Horses, humans and history in South Africa. South Africa: Wits University Press.
Talley, G. (2015). Fantasia; performing traditional equestrianism as heritage in Morocco. MA: UCLA.
Thiselton, D. (2015, September 7). Phumelela empowered!.
Thompson, K. & Adelman, M. (2013). Epilogue: A research agenda for putting gender through its paces. In M. Adelman & J. Knijnik (Eds.), Gender and equestrian sport—Riding around the world. Berlin: Springer.
Tyali, L. (2004, March 27). Unhambi’ horse racing revived. Daily Dispatch.
Wiggins, D. (1997). Isaac Murphy: Black hero in nineteenth-century American sport, 1861–1894. In David Wiggins (Ed.), Glory bound: Black athletes in white America (pp. 21–33). Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
Williams, J. M. (2010). Chieftaincy, the state, and democracy: Political legitimacy in post-apartheid South Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Winters, J. (2008). We don’t want to frighten the horses: The 1975 stable lads’ strike. Eastbourne: British Society of Sports History.
Zachariasen, A. (2008). Phindi Kema, stud farmer extraordinaire. Cape Town: Eastern Cape Madiba Action. (winter).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Swart, S. (2017). Race Politics: Horse Racing, Identity and Power in South Africa. In: Adelman, M., Thompson, K. (eds) Equestrian Cultures in Global and Local Contexts. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55886-8_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55886-8_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-55885-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-55886-8
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)