Abstract
Pakistan has gained the international reputation of being the world’s foremost exporter of Jihadism. While analysing the causes and consequences of this phenomenon, numerous observers find that there are clear indicators that the Pakistani government is involved in sponsoring terrorism. In order to weigh these assertions, this chapter will apply the concept of state terrorism to Pakistan, based on a set of indicators, in order to assess the potential involvement of the government in terrorism. It demonstrates that, in the case of Pakistan, state-sponsored terrorism is caused by a severe defect in the country’s political-administrative system more generally and by the unhealthy civil-military relations in particular. Subsequently, it analyses the discrepancy between the claims and true ambition of the government as it assesses Pakistan’s recent counterterrorism activities. The chapter stresses that Pakistan has only acted against militant groups that developed an anti-Pakistan agenda and are considered a threat to the regime. Terrorist organizations on Pakistani soil that mostly operate abroad, especially in Afghanistan and/or India, are not clearly targeted by the country’s antiterrorism campaigns. Keeping this in mind, the analysis will consider the interstate dimensions of Pakistan’s involvement in state terrorism. In conclusion, it considers Pakistan a part of the problem of cross-border terrorism, rather than a credible partner in finding a comprehensive solution to the global challenges of international Jihadism. As such, it is argued that Pakistan must be identified as a state sponsor of terrorism.
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Notes
- 1.
For example, Federally Administered Tribal Areas/FATA, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa/KPK, Balochistan, Punjab and Karachi.
- 2.
For example, territorial dispute over Kashmir with India and a contested border with Afghanistan claiming parts of Pakistan’s territory, socio-economic problems, an under-institutionalized political society (there was no constitution until 1956, and general elections did not occur until 1970), over-bureaucratization of state and politics and unstable civilian governments.
- 3.
General Zia usurped power through a military coup on 5 July 1977 by unconstitutionally overthrowing the civilian government of Bhutto.
- 4.
There has been a tendency for the military to institutionalize its political role (especially under Zia-ul-Haq and Pervez Musharraf) featured by three criteria: (1) the abandonment of former personalized forms of exercising political influence (Ayub Khan 1958–1962 and partly Yahya Khan 1962–1971); (2) the (informal) induction of broader sections of the armed forces into the political system to run the affairs of state; and (3) the constitutional entrenchment of a political role for the armed forces, e.g. the introduction of the Eighth Amendment.
- 5.
- 6.
Understood as regular and paramilitary forces as well as intelligence agencies.
- 7.
During Pakistan’s constitutional history, three constitutions got promulgated, in 1956, 1962 and 1973. In all three constitutional drafts, the Objectives Resolution (also known as the ‘Aims and Objectives of the Constitution’) was adopted as the preamble (Khan 2010: 57).
- 8.
The election manifesto of 1977 of the PPP also included the party’s commitment to (1) make the teaching of the Qur’an an integral part of general education; (2) restore to the mosque its traditional place of eminence as a centre of the community; (3) establish a federal Ulema Academy to educate imams and khatibs of mosques; (4) make the shrines of the venerated saints centres of Islamic learnings; (5) increase hajj facilities; and (6) strengthen the Islamic Research Institute at Islamabad ‘Pakistan People’s Party Manifesto’ (The Pakistan Times [25 January 1977] quoted in Hassan, 1985: 263–264).
- 9.
Jinnah’s vision of Pakistan was of a state composed principally of Muslims but essentially secular and democratic in its constitution and political institutions (Delvoie, 1995).
- 10.
Bhutto pushed the establishment of the Federal Ulema Academy to educate imams and khatibs of mosques, increased hajj facilities and strengthened the Islamic Research Institute at Islamabad (Hassan, 1985: 264).
- 11.
One ordinance is also known as hadd (singular form of Islamic punishment). Each of four hadd constituting the Hudood (literally boundaries) ordinances refers to one specific offence: intoxication, theft, zina (adultery/fornication), and qazf (slander or false accusation) (Malik, 2011: 42).
- 12.
The ISI was established in 1948 by a British army officer, and headquarters are located in Islamabad. The ISI and the Intelligence Bureau (IB) are the two main intelligence agencies in Pakistan. IB is controlled by the Ministry of the Interior, and the ISI is part of the Ministry of Defence. ISI responsibilities include the collection of foreign and domestic intelligence and coordination of the intelligence functions of the three military services. ISI plays a key role in politics and decision-making of Pakistan. It is one of the most powerful institutions in Pakistan (Hussain, 2010: 190; 249–250; Mitra et al., 2006: 300).
- 13.
Despite the above descript different dimensions, in the following discourse, the term state terrorism will be sued synonymously with ‘governmental or state terror’, ‘state involvement in terror’ and ‘state sponsorship of terrorism’.
- 14.
Actually each employee or functionaries acting in their official capacity as representatives of a regime/government can be considered as a potential perpetrator of state terrorism (Jackson et al., 2011).
- 15.
For example, the Indus River Basin Project.
- 16.
This was the first ‘free and fair’ election on universal suffrage held in Pakistan, as promised by the then military dictator General Yahya Khan after took over in 1969 (Bose, 2005).
- 17.
Held on 12 December 1970, the election was contested by the major parties of each wing, the Bangladesh Awami League (AL) of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, dominant in the east, and the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, dominant in the west. The AL having taken 162 of the 313 seats in the Pakistan parliament was the winner. Consequently, it was expected that the AL, whose leader was advocating a new constitution on the basis of his Six-Point Programme which would greatly limit the power of West Pakistan, would form the government (Mitra et al., 2006: 54; Murphy, 2013: 70).
- 18.
Apparently, the silence of Mr. Nixon was the trade-off for Pakistan’s help to arrange the US-China rapprochement which resulted in the 1972 visit of President Nixon to China (Wolf, 2013).
- 19.
Islamabad feels threatened by India’s large diplomatic presence and also questions the motives of Indian substantial assistance and aid towards Afghanistan, ‘as New Delhi does not frequently provide economic assistance, much less a billion dollars’ worth’ (Levine, 2010: 3). In this light, India’s reconstruction and development efforts in the so-called Pashtun belt, which is close to the border, are seen as promoting separatists within Pakistan, e.g. Balochistan. Pakistan believes that India uses its consular services as intelligence bases which provide cover for the Indian intelligence agency (RAW) to run operations against Pakistan, e.g. circulating false currency and running training camps for Afghans to carry out destructive activities, and to initiate and support separatist rebellions in Balochistan. In this context, Pakistanis also accuse the Kabul government that it uses the Ministry of Tribal Affairs and the Afghan intelligence service to cooperate with India to finance and arm the separatist Balochistan Liberation Army (Gundu & Schaffer, 2008: 1).
- 20.
‘In 1947, the Pakhtun Khudayi Khidmatgaran movement, guided by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and based in the KPK (than North West Frontier Province/NWFP), joined hands with the Indian Congress (INC) and then opted for independence, or at least autonomy within Pakistan’ (Roy, 2004: 159).
- 21.
In this context, it is interesting to mention that Afghanistan was the only country not to vote in favour of the admission of Pakistan into the United Nations (UN) after achieving independence in 1947 (Roy, 2004: 150).
- 22.
For example, ‘Afghan officers were send to India for training’ (Roy, 2004: 150).
- 23.
In this context Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation signed in 1971 was of special concern for Pakistan. From the early 1950s and throughout the Cold War, India and the Soviet Union maintained close co-operative ties. India’s policy of non-alignment enabled it to accept Soviet aid in the sectors of industrial development, defence production and arms purchases as well as foreign aid from the USA, particularly for food. The 1971 treaty between Moscow and New Delhi was especially supposed to counterbalance the emerging Pakistan-China-US triangle (Mitra et al., 2006: 148).
- 24.
- 25.
For example, the statements and/or writings of US General David H. Petraeus, journalist Carlotta Gall or Canadian diplomat Alexander Chris are remarkable. Nevertheless, regarding Alexander Chris, Pakistan’s state sponsorship of terrorism is happening. But ‘it’s covert. It’s been denied. Not even Western analysts agree that it’s happening on the scale we know it to be happening’ (Harris, 2014).
- 26.
Assassinated by a US drone attack in 2016.
- 27.
The HQN seem to be not only an ally of the Taliban but also increasingly a dominant factor within the Taliban movement. More concrete, HQN was able to gain crucial leverage among the Taliban leadership structure. For example, Sirajuddin Haqqani, the current group chief of HQN, was selected in 2015 during an intense leadership struggle as deputy leader of the Taliban in Afghanistan (Mashal, 2016).
- 28.
The Shia (minority) community was identified as a threat by the than military regime of Zia-ul-Haq. In order to contain or even eradicate their influence, the dictator decided to support the build-up of radicalized Sunni (the religious majority in Pakistan) groups (Grare, 2009: 26; Nasr, 2004: 92). This anti-Shia policy was continued by all following governments in Pakistan.
- 29.
Canadian AP reporter Kathy Gannon got severely wounded during this attack, but Anja Niedringhaus got killed. The two women were travelling on the countryside to cover the election campaign in rural areas of the country (Fatah, 2014).
- 30.
The attack on the Embassy was a combined attack including ISAF headquarter.
- 31.
Regarding this resolution, UB member states are required to enforce travel bans, freeze assets and put arms embargos on persons and entities if they have proven links with al-Qaeda. See also: https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267
- 32.
Leaving about 65% of the former princely state under Indian administration (Ladakh, Valley of Kashmir, Jammu) and about 35% under Pakistani administration (Northern Areas, Azad Kashmir), armed Indian and Pakistani forces are separated by just a few metres.
- 33.
The Kargil conflict, which took place in 1999 between India and Pakistan shortly after the Lahore summit between the countries’ then Prime Ministers, resulted in the death of 524 Indian soldiers and left 1363 wounded on the Indian side. This was the first conventional war since India and Pakistan nuclear powers. The effort to seize territory on the Indian side of the Line of Control (LoC) around Kargil in the state of J&K was the brainchild of Pakistan’s Chief of Army Staff, Gen. Pervez Musharraf. It is speculated that while Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was informed, he may not have known the details about the operation. The mediating role played by US President Clinton enhanced the influence of the USA in South Asia (Tellis et al., 2001).
- 34.
The ‘surgical strikes’ are military operation by India against terrorist facilities on the Pakistani-controlled side of the ‘Line of Control’, the currently de facto, acting border between both countries.
- 35.
Akali Dal (Eternal Party), also known as Shiromani Akali Dal, is a regional political party claiming to represent India’s Sikhs. It describes itself as a moderate Sikh party and is controlled by the dominant Jat Sikh farming community of Punjab. Founded in 1920 as a political-religious movement, the Akali Dal sought to promote the political voice of Sikhs in issues pertaining to their interests, in particular to return the control of gurdwaras (Sikh temples) to the orthodox Sikh religious community, and to promote a return to the roots of the Sikh religion. Following partition and the reorganization of the states after independence, the charismatic Akali Dal leader, Master Tara Singh, launched the ‘Punjabi Suba Agitation’ to form a state in which Sikhs would be a majority. In 1966 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi granted the demand and out of the state of Punjab formed a Sikh-majority Punjab, with the Hindu-majority areas divided between Haryana and Himachal Pradesh (Mitra et al., 2006: 6).
- 36.
A Sikh priest, or sant, Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale became a political leader and charismatic militant, leading the pro-Khalistan movement of the 1980s. Initially courted by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, the support for Bhindranwale was meant to cut into the sphere of influence of the Akali Dal, the main rival to Congress in the state of Punjab. Bhindranwale’s iconic stature, combined with growing violence and terror in the state as well as speculation of a Pakistani hand, began to worry the central government, which decided to take action in 1984. In an attack code-named Operation Blue Star, the Indian army-stormed Amritsar’s Golden Temple, in whose precincts Bhindranwale and his followers had taken sanctuary. During the operation Bhindranwale was killed (Mitra et al., 2006: 61).
- 37.
Babbar Khalsa International (BKI), Indian Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF), Khalistan Zindabad Force (KZF) and Khalistan Tiger Force (KTF).
- 38.
The bus had 75 passengers, several of whom were injured. Due to the cunning, the immediate reaction of the driver was he was able to move the bus out of the side of the attack and brought the insured passenger to a hospital nearby.
- 39.
The counterterrorism assault was carried out by the Army and NSG under the lead of the Punjab police.
- 40.
The de facto international border between Pakistan and India.
- 41.
- 42.
A dense fog in winters makes border surveillance an added challenge.
- 43.
Today, Pathankot is an Indian district in its own right after it got carved out from Gurdaspur district in 2011.
- 44.
Azad Kashmir (Free Kashmir), together with the Northern Areas, constitutes almost one-third of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, under Pakistan administration since the Indo-Pakistan war of 1947. Pakistan has divided these areas into two parts: 13,300 sq. km as a nominally autonomous state of Azad Kashmir and 72,496 sq. km incorporated into Pakistan as the Northern Areas and administered as a de facto dependency. Azad Kashmir, with Muzaffarabad as its capital, has a mountainous terrain and a population of more than 4.3 million. The politics of economically underdeveloped Azad Kashmir have mostly been influenced and dominated by prevalent trends in the political and military echelons of Pakistan (PDDM, 2013; Mitra et al., 2006: 18).
- 45.
The temple (cave) forms a crucial constituent of Hinduism and is considered to be one of the holiest shrines in Hinduism BBC (2002).
- 46.
The term MILBUS describes ‘operations involving all levels of the armed forces’. These range from corporations owned by the military as an institution, to welfare foundations belonging to different services and to enterprises run at the unit level and individual soldiers who use their positions for private economic gain (Siddiqa, 2009: 4).
- 47.
COAS, Chief of Army Staff.
- 48.
LeT were attacking two world-class hotels, a café popular with foreign tourists, one of the busiest railway stations in the country and a community centre run by the Jewish Chabad organization.
- 49.
Lakhvi was released on bail by a Pakistani court in April 2015 (Panda, 2015).
- 50.
‘Salahuddin’s original name is Mohammed Yusuf Shah, who hails from Soibugh area of Budgam district in central Kashmir’.
- 51.
For example, China blocked the listings of members of LeT and its parent organization JuD, namely, Zaki-ur-Rehman Lakhvi, JuD leader Hafiz Muhammad Saeed, chief of finance Haji Muhammad Ashraf and Saudi-based financier and one of JuD’s founding members, Mahmoud Bahaziq.
- 52.
Regarding UN reports, Al-Akhtar Trust maintains regional offices in the Pakistani cites of Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Gilgit, Islamabad, Mirpur Khas and Tando-Jan-Mohammad, as well as in Spin Boldak in Afghanistan. Al-Rashid Trust is primarily focusing on Afghanistan and conducts activities in Herat Jalalabad, Kabul, Kandahar and Mazar Sharif (Roggio, 2008).
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Wolf, S.O. (2017). Pakistan and State-Sponsored Terrorism in South Asia. In: Casaca, P., Wolf, S. (eds) Terrorism Revisited. Contemporary South Asian Studies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55690-1_5
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