Abstract
In all its forms of expression, diplomacy is based on the sovereignty of states. This framework is the starting point of our analysis: science diplomacy is a national issue. We examine its mechanisms here. But in order to understand the relationships between the world of scholars and the world of diplomats, it is first necessary to observe the characteristics specific to each of them.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
“Science as a Vocation” and “Politics as a Vocation” are two famous lectures that Max Weber gave in Munich in 1917 and 1919 respectively.
- 2.
- 3.
This quote is attributed to Japanese diplomat Komura Jutaro.
- 4.
This judgment of Sir Henry Wotton, an English seventeenth century diplomat, is quoted in the report Royal Society–AAAS.
- 5.
F. de Callières (1716), De la manière de négocier avec le souverain, quoted by R. Delcorde (2005), p.105.
- 6.
A recent evaluation confirms this view: “Many of the misunderstandings between both diplomatic and scientific worlds come from reciprocal fears that must be overcome: the first one does not understand the reluctance of major research organizations or institutions to accept the implementation of partnerships intended primarily to bring France and foreign countries closer together, with the hope of diplomatic benefits; the second one fears the dilution in short term objectives of scientific excellence, the only basis for lasting cooperation in the scientist’s eyes”, Ministère de l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherche and Ministère des affaires étrangères (2014), La coordination de l’action internationale en matière d’enseignement supérieur et de recherche, p. 83.
- 7.
J.-J. Salomon notes then that “the specificity of the scientist, whose business, culture, values were indifferent, if not disobedient to the political sphere, vanishes into specific behaviors by which he expresses and represents in turn the state in its relations with other states”.
- 8.
Laurent Lafforgue was a Fields Medal winner in 2002.
- 9.
Jean Bodin (1529–1596) is a French philosopher, economist and political theorist, author of the Six livres de la République (1576) from which the famous maxim is derived.
- 10.
The 16 countries are: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, India, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom and USA. These 16 countries represent 70% of all articles published in these disciplines. Reviews having made it possible to identify researchers were selected at random in all scientific journals indexed by the Institute for Scientific Information. Due to difficulties in conducting the survey, China has been left out, which is a limitation of this work.
- 11.
By maintaining links between graduates and the university or school that trained them, alumni associations participate in the diplomacy of influence of a country.
- 12.
According to UNESCO statistics, the number of international students in 2002 was 2.1 million. It amounted to 4.1 million in 2013. Regarding students attractiveness, English speaking countries hold in global competition a clear advantage: among them, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada are the top four destinations, gathering in 2009 40% of students international mobility, although their share of world total is declining (it was around 50% in 2002). See R. Choudaha and C. Li (2012).
- 13.
For instance, the United Kingdom regularly organizes bilateral summits on science and technology issues with Brazil, China, India, Russia, South Africa and South Korea.
- 14.
The joint commission and an executive secretariat oversee the implementation of the framework agreement. An executive secretaries’ meeting takes place in years when the joint commission has not met. It takes stock of cooperation activities covered by the agreement and proposes changes and other amendments to the joint commission (Suttmeier 2010, p. 28).
- 15.
Agents holding the nationality of the country hosting the headquarters of an organization are generally over-represented in it: the French are in the majority at UNESCO, the Americans at the IMF, and the Belgians at the European Commission.
- 16.
The French Academy of Sciences promoted in 2012 a charter of expertise, which states that “the expert report mentions questions that the state of available knowledge does not enable to answer with sufficient certainty. It outlines controversies related or not to uncertainties and indicates any divergent opinions expressed in the committee of experts. It recalls that the points settled with sufficient certainty are based on the state of scientific knowledge at the time”.
- 17.
IPBES is the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.
- 18.
Michel Bourquin, former Rector of the University of Geneva, chaired the CERN board from 2001 to 2003.
References
Amable, B. 2003. Les systèmesd’innovation. In Encyclopédie de l’innovation, ed. P. Mustar and H. Penan, 367–382. Paris: Economica.
Auriol, L. 2010. Careers of Doctorate Holders: Employment and Mobility Patterns. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers 2010/04. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/5kmh8phxvvf5-en.
Bazouni, Y. 2005. Le métier de diplomate. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Bourquin, M. 2004. Grâce au CERN, la région bénéficie d’une meilleure visibilité internationale. Campus no. 7. University of Geneva.
Choudaha, R., and C. Li. 2012. Trends in International Student Mobility. WES Research & Advisory Services. 21 p. http://www.wes.org/RAS
Copeland, D. 2011. Science Diplomacy: What’s It All About? CEPI-CIPS Policy Brief (13): 1–4.
Delcorde, R. 2005. Les mots de la diplomatie. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Edgerton, D. 1997. Science in the United Kingdom: A Study in the Nationalization of Science. In Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. J. Krige and D. Pestre, 815–838. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers.
Franzoni, C., G. Scellato, and P. Stephan. 2012. Foreign Born Scientists: Mobility Patterns for Sixteen Countries. Working Paper No. 18067, National Bureau of Economic Research. 25 p.
Halary, C. 1994. Les exilés du savoir—Les migrations scientifiques internationales et leurs mobiles. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Lafforgue, L. 2005. Le français, au service des sciences. Pour la Science, 329. http://www.pourlascience.fr/ewb_pages/a/article-le-francais-au-service-des-sciences-20519.php
Laurent, C., et al. 2009. Pourquoi s’intéresser à la notion d’ “evidence-basedpolicy”? Revue Tiers Monde 4 (200): 853–873.
Loriol, M., F. Piotet, and D. Defolie. 2008. Le travail diplomatique. Un métier et un art. Research Report to the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Laboratoire Georges Friedman—UMR8593. 131 p.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs—Directorate General of Global Affairs, Development and Partnerships. 2013. Science Diplomacy for France, 17 p. http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/science-diplomacy-for-france-2013_cle83c9d2.pdf
National Science Board. 2012. Science and Engineering Indicators. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. 592 p. http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind12/pdf/seind12.pdf
———. 2014. Science and Engineering Indicators. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. 600 p. http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind14/content/etc/nsb1401.pdf
Pestre, D. 2004. Le nouvel univers des sciences et des techniques: une proposition générale. In Les sciences pour la guerre: 1940–1960, ed. A. Dahan and D. Pestre, 11–47. Paris: Editions de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales.
OECD. 2010. Ministerial Report on the OECD Innovation Strategy—Innovation to Strengthen Growth and Address Global and Social Challenges, 27 p. http://www.oecd.org/sti/45326349.pdf
———. 2011. International Mobility. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Scoreboard 2011. OECD Publishing. doi:10.1787/sti_scoreboard-2011-26-en.
Piotet, F., M. Loriol, and D. Delfolie. 2013. Splendeurs et misères du travail des diplomates. Paris: Hermann.
Roqueplo, P. 1997. Entre savoir et décision, l’expertise scientifique. In collection on Sciences en questions. Paris: Institut national de la recherche agronomique. 111 p.
Royal Society and American Association for the Advancement of Science. 2010. New Frontiers in Science Diplomacy: Navigating the Changing Balance of Power?, 32 p. http://diplomacy.aaas.org/files/New_Frontiers.pdf
Salomon, J.-J. 1970, republished 1989. Science et politique. Paris: Economica. 407 p.
———. 2006. Les scientifiques entre pouvoir et savoir. Paris: Albin Michel.
Siegfried, A. 1950. L’âme des peuples. Paris: Hachette.
Suttmeier, R.P. 2010. From Scientific Tourism to Global Partnership (?): Thirty Years of Sino-American Relations in Science and Technology. In Sino-American Relations—Challenges Ahead, ed. Y. Hao, 23–40. Farnham: Ashgate.
Tenzer, N. 2008. L’expertise internationale au cœur de la diplomatie et de la coopération du XXIe siècle—Instruments pour une stratégie française de puissance et d’influence. Report to the Prime Minister. 430 p. http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/rapports-publics/084000476/
UNESCO. 2010. UNESCO Science Report 2010—The Current Status of Science Around the World. Executive Summary. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. 520 p.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ruffini, PB. (2017). Science Diplomacy as a National Issue. In: Science and Diplomacy. Science, Technology and Innovation Studies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55104-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55104-3_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-55103-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-55104-3
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)