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Civilizing Strategies and the Beginning of Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth-Century Russian Empire

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Part of the book series: Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series ((CIPCSS))

Abstract

By investigating how Russian governments developed civilizing policies and gave them a colonial nature in the eighteenth century, this chapter challenges previous positions that underlined that Peter the Great and his successors only aimed at civilizing the empire’s population indistinguishably. After exploring Peter’s missionary efforts that can be seen as the beginning of a political shift towards colonial policies, Vulpius focuses on the policy of Elisabeth and Catherine II aiming at suppressing nomadic ways of life, creating settlements and introducing agriculture. She claims that the Russian reception of Enlightenment thought was the driving force behind this shift towards colonial policy and suggests that Russia’s imperial concepts and practices in the eighteenth century provided for the foundations of the “civilizing mission” proclaimed in the following centuries.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Some of the latest publications on Enlightenment in Russia are Michael Schippan, Die Aufklärung in Russland im 18. Jahrhundert (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2012); Elise Kimerling Wirtschafter, “Thoughts on the Enlightenment and Enlightenment in Russia,” Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography 2 (2009), 1–26; Andreas Renner, “Russland. Die Autokratie der Aufklärung,” in Orte eigener Vernunft. Europäische Aufklärung jenseits der Zentren, eds. Andreas Renner and Alexander Kraus (Frankfurt: Campus, 2008), 125–142.

  2. 2.

    Great exceptions are Andreas Kappeler, Rußlands erste Nationalitäten. Das Zarenreich und die Völker der Mittleren Wolga vom 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert (Köln: Böhlau, 1981); Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors. Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994); Michael Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier. The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002); Willard Sunderland, Taming the Wild Field. Colonization and Empire on the Russian Steppe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004).

  3. 3.

    Jörg Baberowski, “Auf der Suche nach Eindeutigkeit: Kolonialismus und zivilisatorische Mission im Zarenreich und in der Sowjetunion,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 47 (1999), 482–504; Manfred Hildermeier, Geschichte Russland. Vom Mittelalter bis zur Oktoberrevolution (München: C. H. Beck, 2013), 549–557; Jürgen Osterhammel, “‘The Great Work of Uplifting Mankind’. Zivilisierungsmission und Moderne,” in Zivilisierungsmissionen. Imperiale Weltverbesserung seit dem 18. Jahrhundert, eds. Boris Barth and Jürgen Osterhammel (Konstanz: UVK-Verlagsgesellschaft, 2005), 363–426, here 392–395.

  4. 4.

    Aleksandr Etkind, Internal Colonization: Russia’s Imperial Experience (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2011).

  5. 5.

    Jürgen Osterhammel, Kolonialismus. Geschichte, Formen, Folgen (München: C. H. Beck, 1995), 20–21.

  6. 6.

    Peter der Große in Westeuropa. Die große Gesandtschaft 1697–1698 (Bremen: Ed. Temmen, 1991); Dmitrii Guzevich and Irina Guzevich, Velikoe posol’stvo (St Petersburg: Fenirs, 2003).

  7. 7.

    Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii, 1-aia seriia (hereafter cited as PSZRI) (St Petersburg: 1830–1916), Vol. 4, No. 1800 (18.6.1800), 59–60.

  8. 8.

    N. Firsov, Polozhenie inorodcev Severo-Vostochnoi Rossii v Moskovskom gosudarstve (Kazan’: 1866), 203; Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors. Russia and the Small Peoples of the North (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 40, 44.

  9. 9.

    Michael Khodarkovsky perceives a “new dimension in the mission” including the change in attitude towards non-Christians in the South and East only in the twenties of the eighteenth century: Michael Khodarkovsky, “The Conversion of Non-Christians in Early Modern Russia,” in Of Religion and Empire. Missions, Conversion, and Tolerance in Tsarist Russia, eds. Robert P. Geraci and Michael Khodarkovsky (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 115–143, here 130.

  10. 10.

    Pamiatniki sibirskoi istorii XVIII v (St Peterburg: Tipografiia ministerstva vnutrennych del, 1882), Vol. 1, No. 96 (7.6.1710), 413–414.

  11. 11.

    PSZRI Vol. 5, No. 2863 (6.12.1714), 133.

  12. 12.

    Leonid Taimasov, “From ‘Kazan’s Newly Converted’ to ‘Orthodox Inorodtsy’: The Historical Stages of the Affirmation of Christianity in the Middle Volga Region,” in: Imperiology: From Empirical Knowledge to Discussing the Russian Empire, ed. Kimitaka Matsuzato (Sapporo: Slavic Research Center, Hokkaido University, 2007), 111–138, here 115.

  13. 13.

    Hans-Heinrich Nolte, Religiöse Toleranz in Rußland 1600–1725 (Göttingen: Muster-Schmidt, 1969), 88–89; Joseph Glazik, Die russisch-orthodoxe Heidenmission seit Peter dem Grossen (Münster: Aschdendorff, 1954), 39, 46–49, 84–85; Joseph Glazik, Die Islammission der russisch-orthodoxen Kirche: Eine missionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung nach russischen Quellen und Darstellungen (Münster: Aschendorff, 1959), 73.

  14. 14.

    Taimasov, “Kazan’s Newly Converted,” 122/123.

  15. 15.

    PSZRI Vol. 5, No. 2734 (3.11.1713), 66–67.

  16. 16.

    PSZRI Vol. 6, No. 4067, 754–755.

  17. 17.

    Cited in V. I. Buganov, Razriadnye knigi poslednei chetverti XV-nachala XVII v (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk SSSR, 1962), 35. See also Hans-Heinrich Nolte, “Verständnis und Bedeutung der religiösen Toleranz in Rußland 1600–1725,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 17 (1969), 494–530, here 505.

  18. 18.

    Dopolneniia k aktam istoricheskim, sobrannyia i izdannyia Archeograficheskoiu Kommissieiu (St Peterburg: Archeograficheskaia Kommissiia, 1846–1872), vol. 3, No. 69, 250; Nolte, Religiöse Toleranz, 505.

  19. 19.

    Nolte, Religiöse Toleranz, 110–122.

  20. 20.

    Pis’ma i bumagi imperatora Petra Velikogo. Vol. 2 (St Petersburg: Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1889), No. 421, 39–50, here 41–42.

  21. 21.

    Igor Smolitsch, Geschichte der russischen Kirche 1700–1917 (Leiden: Brill, 1964), 133.

  22. 22.

    For more details on methods of conversion in the Petrine era, see Ricarda Vulpius, Russland als Imperium und Kolonialreich im 18. Jahrhundert. Konzepte und Praktiken russländischer Eliten. Manuscript, publication in 2018.

  23. 23.

    According to Andreas Kappeler, the four years of aggressive missionary activities under Ivan IV towards the Tatars of Kazan were a “temporary, short-term deviation from the basic line.” Andreas Kappeler, “Die Moskauer ‘Nationalitätenpolitik’ unter Ivan IV,” in Russian History 14 (1987), 263–282, here 282. In contrast to this phase in the sixteenth century, the aggressive missionary policy in the first half of the eighteenth century has to be categorized differently.

  24. 24.

    Robert D. Crews, For Prophet and Tsar: Islam and Empire in Russia and Central Asia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).

  25. 25.

    M. M. Fedorov, Pravovoe polozhenie narodov vostochnoi Sibiri (XVII-nachalo XIX veka) (Iakutsk: Iakutskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1978), 65–67; E. M. Zalkind, Obshchestvennyi stroi buriat v XVIII i pervoi polovine XIX vv. (Moscow: Nauka, 1970), 24–47; N. V. Kim, Iz istorii zemledeliia u buriat v konce XVIII i pervoi polovine XIX veka. Issledovaniia i materialy po istorii Buriatii (Ulan-Ude: Buryatskoe knizhnoe izdatel‘stvo, 1968), 99–125; G. P. Basharin, Iz istorii priobshcheniia iakutov k russkoi zemledel’cheskoi kul’ture (Iakutsk: Iakutskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1958); F. G. Safronov, Russkie krest’iane v Iakutii (Iakutsk: Iakutskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1961).

  26. 26.

    Fedorov, Pravovoe polozhenie, 171.

  27. 27.

    Robert Kindler, Stalins Nomaden. Herrschaft und Hunger in Kasachstan (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2014).

  28. 28.

    More details in Vulpius, Russland als Imperium.

  29. 29.

    Kazakhsko-Russkie Otnosheniia (hereafter cited as KRO) vol. 1, No. 24 (1722), 31. On the multiple connotation of legkomyslennyi in the sense of “unreasonable,” “ignorant” as well as “unstable” and “unsolid” see Slovar’ russkogo iazyka XVIII veka (St Petersburg: Nauka, 2000), vol. 11, and Slovar’ Akademii Rossiiskoi (St Petersburg: Imperatorskaia Akademia Nauk, 1792), vol. 3.

  30. 30.

    Exemplary is here the regulation envisaging the settlement of newly baptized Kalmyks. It deals exclusively with the question of locality; the settlement itself, the ultimate goal of sedentarization, is not mentioned at all. PSZRI Vol. 5, No. 3062 (14.1.1717), 485–486.

  31. 31.

    PSZRI Vol. 10, No. 7228 (18.4.1737), 126–128.

  32. 32.

    PSZRI No. 7335 (26.7.1737), 226–228.

  33. 33.

    PSZRI Vol. 11, Nr. 8394 (6.6.1740), 436–438; PSZRI Vol. 10, Nr. 7733 (15.1.1739), 702–704.

  34. 34.

    The only exception was the North Caucasus. There, throughout the eighteenth century, Christianity and civilization were seen as inseparable entities. Thus, one can observe an astonishing parallel in time with regard to changes in politics within the Iberian and French colonial empires. There, too, in the middle of the 1750s the state’s strategy of civilization became detached from religious mission and the latter was reduced to just one aspect among others. See the contributions in this volume by Maria Regina Celestino de Almeida, Lía Quarleri, and Damien Tricoire.

  35. 35.

    KRO Vol. 1, Nr. 225 (22.1.1759), 571–591, here 575.

  36. 36.

    The Russian text can be found in an abridged version in KRO No. 246 (2.11.1761), 630–632. See the unabridged text, published in German, in Beate Eschment, “‘Wider die leichtsinnigen wilden und der viehischen Lebensart sehr ergebenen Kirgis-Kaisaken.’ Vorschläge eines baltendeutschen Adligen in russischen Diensten zur Befriedung der Kazachen,” in Orientwissenschaftliche Hefte 15, Mitteilungen des SFB “Differenz und Integration” 4/2 (2004), 131–157, here 140–146.

  37. 37.

    KRO No. 246 (2.11.1761), 630; Eschment, “Wider die leichtsinnigen,” 144.

  38. 38.

    KRO No. 246 (2.11.1761), 630; Eschment, “Wider die leichtsinnigen,” 144/145.

  39. 39.

    During the following years, time and again the College for Foreign Affairs as well as governors in the steppe regions referred to Veimarn’s argumentation. See KRO no. 257 (9.2.1764), 659–663. KRO no. 267 (17.11.1766), 682–684.

  40. 40.

    Ivan Ivanovich Kraft, Sbornik uzakonenii o Kirgizakh stepnych oblastei (Orenburg: Tipo-Litografiia P. N. Zharinova, 1898), no. 279, 104; N. G. Apollova, Ekonomicheskie i politicheskie sviazi Kazakhstana s Rossiei v XVIII-nachale XIX v. (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1960), 174–177; A. Iu. Bykov, Istoki modernizacii Kazachstana (Problema sedentarizacii v rossiiskoi politike XVIII-nachala XX veka) (Barnaul: Izdatel’stvo Azbuka, 2003), 53.

  41. 41.

    KRO No. 257 (9.2.1764), 659–663.

  42. 42.

    More details in Vulpius, Russland als Imperium.

  43. 43.

    A. I. Levshin, Opisanie kirgiz-kazach’ikh ili kirgiz-kaisackikh ord i stepei (St Petersburg, 1832), vol. 1–3, here vol. 3, 198; Apollova, Ekonomicheskie i politicheskie sviazi, 174; I. R. Prochorov, “Istoricheskaia geografiia kazakhskogo zemledeliia (1758–1822),” in Vestnik Karagandinskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta 2006. http://articlekz.com/article/53499

  44. 44.

    Materialy po istorii Kazakhskoi SSR (1785–1828 gg.) (Moscow: Akademiya nauk SSSR, 1940), vol. 4, 19.4.1804, no. 66, 217–224, no. 78 (23.5.1808), 239–240. KRO vol. 2, 20.9.1805, no. 89, 165.

  45. 45.

    KRO Vol. 2, No. 107, 12.8.1820; No. 111 (not later than 1820), p. 187.

  46. 46.

    Ricarda Vulpius, “Räumliches ‘Ordnen’ und Gewaltmobilisierung: Festungslinien an der südlichen russländischen Frontier im 18. Jahrhundert,” in Umkämpfte Räume. Raumbilder, Ordnungswillen und Gewaltmobilisierung, ed. Ulrike Jureit (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2016 ), 139–157. On other fields of civilization see Vulpius, Russland als Imperium.

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  1. Department of East European History, Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich, Germany

    Ricarda Vulpius

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    Damien Tricoire

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Vulpius, R. (2017). Civilizing Strategies and the Beginning of Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth-Century Russian Empire. In: Tricoire, D. (eds) Enlightened Colonialism. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54280-5_6

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