Skip to main content

Analyzing and Predicting Hypocrisy in the Electorate

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Hypocrisy in American Political Attitudes
  • 252 Accesses

Abstract

In three studies of the American electorate, I utilize every available metric in the American National Election Studies data since 1990 to explore what, exactly, has been and continues to be associated with and predictive of attitudinal hypocrisy of several different types: individual hypocrisy “scores,” overall hypocrisy, and total horizontal constraint—operationalized here as its inverse of “logical anti-constraint.” As hypothesized, traditionalist Christian religiosity, racial resentment, and egalitarianism have strong and robust effects, especially for social issues; while measures of sophistication are limited in their explanatory power, at best. The results, altogether, paint a contextualized, and unfortunately more convoluted, portrait of what the EPDAM’s central expectations are.

If you know the position a person takes on taxes, you can tell their whole philosophy. The tax code, once you get to know it, embodies all the essence of life: greed, politics, power, goodness, charity.

—Sheldon Cohen (Birnbaum & Murray, 1987, p. 289)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abramowitz, A. I., & Saunders, K. L. (2006). Exploring the bases of partisanship in the American electorate: Social identity vs. ideology. Political Research Quarterly, 59(2), 175–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abramowitz, A. I. (2013). The polarized public? Why our government is so dysfunctional. Boston, MA: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altemeyer, B. (1998). The other “authoritarian personality”. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 47–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arceneaux, K., Johnson, M., & Maes, H. H. (2012). The genetic basis of political sophistication. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 15(1), 34–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barton, A. H., & Parsons, R. W. (1977). Measuring belief system structure. Public Opinion Quarterly, 41(2), 159–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bendor, J., & Bullock, J. G. (2008). Lethal incompetence: Voters, officials, and systems. Critical Review, 20(1-2), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birnbaum, J. H., & Murray, A. S. (1987). Showdown at Gucci Gulch: Lawmakers, lobbyists, and the unlikely triumph of tax reform. New York, NY: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandt, M. J., Henry, P. J., & Wetherell, G. (2015). The relationship between authoritarianism and life satisfaction changes depending on stigmatized status. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(2), 219–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borgida, E., Federico, C. M., & Sullivan, J. L. (Eds.). (2009). The political psychology of democratic citizenship. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bullock, J. G. (2011). Elite influence on public opinion in an informed electorate. American Political Science Review, 105(3), 496–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burdein, I. (2007). Principled conservatives or covert racists: Disentangling racism and ideology through implicit measures. Doctoral dissertation, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmines, E. G., Ensley, M. J., & Wagner, M. W. (2012). Political ideology in American politics: One, two, or none? The Forum, 10(3). doi:10.1515/1540-8884.1526.

  • Carmines, E. G., & Stimson, J. A. (1989). Issue evolution: Race and the transformation of American politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carmines, E. G., & Berkman, M. (1994). Ethos, ideology, and partisanship: Exploring the paradox of conservative Democrats. Political Behavior, 16(2), 203–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carmines, E. G., & Wagner, M. W. (2006). Political issues and party alignments: Assessing the issue evolution perspective. Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 67–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claassen, C., Tucker, P., & Smith, S. S. (2015). Ideological labels in America. Political Behavior, 37(2), 253–278.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, G. L. (2003). Party over policy: The dominating impact of group influence on political beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 808–822.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conover, P. J., & Feldman, S. (1981). The origins and meaning of liberal/conservative self-identifications. American Journal of Political Science, 25(4), 617–645.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Converse, P. E. (1964). The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In D. Apter (Ed.), Ideology and discontent (pp. 206–261). New York, NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, K. J. (1998). A passion to punish: Abortion opponents who favor the death penalty. Justice Quarterly, 15(2), 329–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Critcher, C. R., Huber, M., Ho, A. K., & Koleva, S. P. (2009). Political orientation and ideological inconsistencies: (Dis)comfort with value tradeoffs. Social Justice Research, 22(2), 181–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowson, H. M. (2009). Does the DOG scale measure dogmatism? Another look at construct validity. The Journal of Social Psychology, 149(3), 365–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Devine, C. J. (2015). Ideological social identity: Psychological attachment to ideological in-groups as a political phenomenon and a behavioral influence. Political Behavior, 37(3), 509–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eclectablog. (2013, July 23). Michigan Senator Rick Jones demonstrates blatant hypocrisy in favor of Big Oil [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://www.eclectablog.com/2013/07/michigan-senator-rick-jones-demonstrates-blatant-hypocrisy-in-favor-of-big-oil.html

  • Ellis, C., & Stimson, J. A. (2009). Symbolic ideology in the American electorate. Electoral Studies, 28(3), 388–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, C., & Stimson, J. A. (2012). Ideology in America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Federico, C. M., Deason, G., & Fisher, E. L. (2012). Ideological asymmetry in the relationship between epistemic motivation and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 381–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federico, C. M., Fisher, E. L., & Deason, G. (2011). Political expertise and the link between the authoritarian predisposition and conservatism. Public Opinion Quarterly, 75, 686–708.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federico, C. M., & Hunt, C. V. (2013). Political information, political involvement, and reliance on ideology in political evaluation. Political Behavior, 35(1), 89–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federico, C. M., Hunt, C. V., & Ergun, D. (2009). Political expertise, social worldviews, and ideology: Translating “competitive jungles” and “dangerous worlds” into ideological reality. Social Justice Research, 22, 259–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Federico, C. M., & Sidanius, J. (2002). Racism, ideology, and affirmative action revisited: The antecedents and consequences of “principled objections” to affirmative action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(4), 488–502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S. (1988). Structure and consistency in public opinion: The role of core beliefs and values. American Journal of Political Science, 32(2), 416–440.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S. (2003). Values, ideology, and the structure of political attitudes. In D. O. Sears, L. Huddy, & R. Jervis (Eds.), Oxford handbook of political psychology (pp. 477–508). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S., & Huddy, L. (2005). Racial resentment and white opposition to race-conscious programs: Principles or prejudice? American Journal of Political Science, 49(1), 168–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, S., & Johnston, C. (2014). Understanding the determinants of political ideology: Implications of structural complexity. Political Psychology, 35(3), 337–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Funk, C. L., Smith, K. B., Alford, J. R., Hibbing, M. V., Eaton, N. R., Krueger, R. F., et al. (2013). Genetic and environmental transmission of political orientations. Political Psychology, 34(6), 805–819.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelman, A. (2016, December 8). 19 lessons for political scientists from the 2016 election. Slate. Retrieved from http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2016/12/_19_lessons_for_political_scientists_from_the_2016_election.html

  • Goren, P., Federico, C. M., & Kittilson, M. C. (2009). Source cues, partisan identities, and political value expression. American Journal of Political Science, 53(4), 805–820.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. P. (2014). The effect of political knowledge on political tolerance. Doctoral dissertation, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hibbing, J. R., & Theiss-Morse, E. (2002). Stealth democracy: Americans’ beliefs about how government should work. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Holbrook, A. L., Sterrett, D., Johnson, T. P., & Krysan, M. (2016). Racial disparities in political participation across issues: The role of issue-specific motivators. Political Behavior, 38(1), 1–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iyer, R., Koleva, S., Graham, J., Ditto, P., & Haidt, J. (2012). Understanding libertarian morality: The psychological dispositions of self-identified libertarians. PLoS One, 7(8), e42366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacoby, W. G. (1991). Ideological identification and issue attitudes. American Journal of Political Science, 35(1), 178–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, W. B. G., & Petty, R. E. (1996). The need to evaluate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(1), 172–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jelen, T. G. (1990). Religious belief and attitude constraint. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29(1), 118–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, M. K. (1992). Ideological thinking among mass publics and political elites. Public Opinion Quarterly, 56(4), 419–441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The Big Five inventory—Versions 4a and 54. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley, Institute of Personality and Social Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C. D., & Wronski, J. (2015). Personality dispositions and political preferences across hard and easy issues. Political Psychology, 36(1), 35–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003a). Exceptions that prove the rule—Using a theory of motivated social cognition to account for ideological incongruities and political anomalies: Reply to Greenberg and Jonas (2003a). Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 383–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003b). Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 339–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Judd, C. M., & Downing, J. W. (1990). Political expertise and the development of attitude consistency. Social Cognition, 8(1), 104–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krosnick, J. A. (1988). Attitude importance and attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24(3), 240–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kopicki, A. (2014, May 15). A measurement of partisan unity. The New York Times, p. A3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lakoff, G. (2008). The political mind. New York, NY: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavine, H. G., Thomsen, C. J., & Gonzales, M. H. (1997). The development of interattitudinal consistency: The shared-consequences model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(4), 735–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lelkes, Y., & Sniderman, P. M. (2016). The ideological asymmetry of the American party system. British Journal of Political Science, 46(4), 825–844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lupton, R. N., Myers, W. M., & Thornton, J. R. (2015). Political sophistication and the dimensionality of elite and mass attitudes, 1980–2004. The Journal of Politics, 77(2), 368–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luttig, M. D., & Callaghan, T. H. (2016). Is President Obama’s race chronically accessible? Racial priming in the 2012 presidential election. Political Communication, 33(4), 628–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malka, A., & Lelkes, Y. (2010). More than ideology: Conservative-liberal identity and receptivity to political cues. Social Justice Research, 23, 156–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malka, A., Lelkes, Y., Srivastava, S., Cohen, A. B., & Miller, D. T. (2012). The association of religiosity and political conservatism: The role of political engagement. Political Psychology, 33(2), 275–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, T. E., & Ornstein, N. J. (2016). It’s even worse than it looks: How the American constitutional system collided with the new politics of extremism (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCrae, R. R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1258–1265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mondak, J. J. (2010). Personality and the foundations of political behavior. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pew Research Center. (2014a, June 12 ). Political polarization in the American public. Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/files/2014/06/6-12-2014-Political-Polarization-Release.pdf

  • Pew Research Center. (2014b, June 26). Beyond red vs. blue: The political typology. Retrieved from http://www.people-press.org/files/2014/06/6-26-14-Political-Typology-release.pdf

  • Poteat, V. P., & Mereish, E. H. (2012). (Dis)similarity between liberals and conservatives: Predicting variability in group differences on abortion and same-sex marriage rights attitudes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 34(1), 56–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rammstedt, B., & John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(1), 203–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regens, J. L., & Bullock, C. S. (1979). Congruity of racial attitudes among black and white students. Social Science Quarterly, 60(3), 511–522.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reyna, C., Henry, P. J., Korfmacher, W., & Tucker, A. (2006). Examining the principles in principled conservatism: The role of responsibility stereotypes as cues for deservingness in racial policy decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1), 109–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, E. R. (2017) The influence of religious–Political sophistication on US public opinion. Political Behavior. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11109-017-9390-z

  • Schwartz, S. H., Caprara, G. V., & Vecchione, M. (2010). Basic personal values, core political values, and voting: A longitudinal analysis. Political Psychology, 31(3), 421–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. H., Caprara, G. V., Vecchione, M., Bain, P., Bianchi, G., Caprara, M. G., et al. (2014). Basic personal values underlie and give coherence to political values: A cross national study in 15 countries. Political Behavior, 36(4), 899–930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, C., & Lodge, M. (1985). Partisan and ideological belief systems: Do they differ? Political Behavior, 7(2), 147–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., & Bobo, L. (1996). Racism, conservatism, affirmative action, and intellectual sophistication: A matter of principled conservatism or group dominance? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 476–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silver, N. (2015, October 28). May be Republicans really are in disarray. FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved from http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/maybe-republicans-really-are-in-disarray/

  • Silver, N. (2016, January 25). The Republican Party may be failing. FiveThirtyEight. Retrieved from http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/the-republican-party-may-be-failing/

  • Smith, D., Hanley, E., Willson, S., & Alvord, D. R. (2015). Authoritarianism, social dominance, and generalized prejudice. Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved from http://www.electionstudies.org/onlinecommons/2016TimeSeries/Authoritarianism.pdf

  • Smith, K. B., Oxley, D. R., Hibbing, M. V., Alford, J. R., & Hibbing, J. R. (2011). Linking genetics and political attitudes: Reconceptualizing political ideology. Political Psychology, 32(3), 369–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanford University and The University of Michigan. (2014, September 25). American National Election Studies ( www.electionstudies.org ) time series cumulative data file [Data file and code book]. Retrieved from http://www.electionstudies.org/studypages/download/datacenter_all_datasets.php

  • Stimson, J. A. (2004). Tides of consent: How public opinion shapes American politics. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Toner, K., Leary, M. R., Asher, M. W., & Jongman-Sereno, K. P. (2013). Feeling superior is a bipartisan issue: Extremity (not direction) of political views predicts belief superiority. Psychological Science, 24(12), 2454–2462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tourangeau, R., Rasinski, K. A., & D’Andrade, R. (1991). Attitude structure and belief accessibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27(1), 48–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, C. R., & Federico, C. M. (2013). Moral foundations and heterogeneity in ideological preferences. Political Psychology, 34(1), 107–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, C., Cramer, K. J., Wagner, M. W., Alvarez, G., Friedland, L. A., Shah, D. V., et al. (2017). When we stop talking politics: The maintenance and closing of conversation in contentious times. Journal of Communication, 67(1), 131–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiecko, F. M., & Gau, J. M. (2008). Every life is sacred…kind of: Uncovering the sources of seemingly contradictory public attitudes toward abortion and the death penalty. The Social Science Journal, 45(4), 546–564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, F. (2015, October 14). Republicans gone wild: Q&A with Mann and Ornstein. Bloomberg View. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2015-10-14/thomas-mann-and-norman-ornstein-on-republicans-gone-wild

  • Yen, S. T., & Zampelli, E. M. (2017). Religiosity, political conservatism, and support for legalized abortion: A bivariate ordered probit model with endogenous regressors. The Social Science Journal, 54(1), 39–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, E. H. (2009). Why we’re liberal, why we’re conservative: A cognitive theory on the origins of ideological thinking. Doctoral dissertation, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaller, J. R. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Zell, E., & Bernstein, M. J. (2014). You may think you’re right… Young adults are more liberal than they realize. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5(3), 326–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zigerell, L. J. (2015). Distinguishing racism from ideology: A methodological inquiry. Political Research Quarterly, 68(3), 521–536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zingher, J. N. (2014). An analysis of the changing social bases of America’s political parties: 1952–2008. Electoral Studies, 35, 272–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Collins, T.P. (2018). Analyzing and Predicting Hypocrisy in the Electorate. In: Hypocrisy in American Political Attitudes. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54012-2_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics