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Lebanon: A Crowded State Without a Nation

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US Foreign Policy and the Multinational Force in Lebanon

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Abstract

This chapter outlines the history of Lebanon and the Lebanese Civil War from the foundation of the modern state to the outbreak of the initial Christian-Palestinian conflict and finally the 1982 Israeli invasion to provide background and context for the subsequent chapters.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The Popular Nasserite Organisation (NPO).

  2. 2.

    Wade Goria, ‘Sovereignty and Leadership in Lebanon 1943–1976’, (London: Ithaca Press, 1985), pp.181–183 & Yusif al-Haytham, ‘Battles of Survival’, MERIP, No.44, February 1976, p.12.

  3. 3.

    Consociationalism in the Lebanese context will be defined as constitutionalised power sharing along politico-religious lines. Arend Lijphart, ‘Consociational Democracy’, World Politics, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1969, pp.207–215 & Oren Barak, ‘Intra-communal and Inter-communal Dimensions of Conflict and Peace in Lebanon’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 34, No.4, 2002, pp.619–644.

  4. 4.

    Michael Hudson, ‘The Precarious Republic: Political Modernization in Lebanon’, (Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1985), Kamal Salibi, ‘A House of Many Mansions- The History of Lebanon Reconsidered’, (London: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, 1993); Theodor Hanf, ‘Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon: Decline of a State and Rise of a Nation’, (London: Centre for Lebanese Studies, Tauris & Co, 1993); Marius Deeb, ‘The Lebanese Civil War’, (New York: Praeger, 1980); Goria, ‘Sovereignty and Leadership in Lebanon 1943–1976’; Tabitha Petran, ‘The Struggle Over Lebanon’, (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); B.J. Odeh, ‘Lebanon: Dynamics of Conflict’, (London: Zed Books, 1985); Samir Kassir, ‘La guerre du Liban: De la dissension nationale au conflit regional, 1975–1982’ (Beirut: CERMOC, 1994) & Ahmad Beydoun, ‘Le Liban: Itineraires dans une guerre incivile’, (Beirut: Cermoc, 1993).

  5. 5.

    Salibi, ‘A house of Many Mansions’, pp.19–37.

  6. 6.

    Maurus Reinkowski, ‘National Identity Since 1990’, Deutsche Zeitschrift für Politik und Wirtschaft des Orient, Vol. 39, 1997, p.493.

  7. 7.

    Hatt-ı Hümayun, ‘Edict 10‘, Boğaziçi University, http://www.ata.boun.edu.tr/Department%20Webpages/ATA_517/Rescript%20of%20Reform,%2018%20February%201856.doc.

  8. 8.

    Kais Firro, ‘Inventing Lebanon: Nationalism and the State Under the Mandate’, (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2002), pp.43–46.

  9. 9.

    Ralph Crow,’Religious Sectarianism in the Lebanese Political System’, The Journal of Politics, Vol. 24, No. 3, August 1962, p.493.

  10. 10.

    Wali means the provincial or district Governor, in this case of Mount Lebanon.

  11. 11.

    Fawaz Traboulsi, ‘A history of Modern Lebanon’, (London: Pluto Press, 2007), pp.37–42.

  12. 12.

    Leila Fawaz, ‘Zahle and Dayr al-Qamar’, in Nadim Shehadi & Dana Haffar Mills, eds., Lebanon: A History of Conflict and Consensus, (London: I.B. Tauris: 1988), pp.51–59 & Petran, ‘The Struggle over Lebanon’, p.24.

  13. 13.

    Meir Zamir, ‘The Formation of Modern Lebanon’, (London: Croom Helm, 1985), pp.1–38 & Leila Fawaz, ‘An Occasion for War’, (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), pp.78–101.

  14. 14.

    Hannah Stewart, ‘Lebanon’s National Identity: Walking Between Raindrops?’, Levantine Review, Vol. 1. No. 2., 2012, p.159.

  15. 15.

    Engin Deniz Akarli, ‘The Administrative Council’, in Shehadi & Mills, Lebanon, pp.79–81.

  16. 16.

    Petran, ‘The Struggle Over Lebanon’, p.26.

  17. 17.

    Zamir, ‘The Formation of Modern Lebanon’, pp.38–96.

  18. 18.

    ‘A House of Many Mansions’, pp.19–37.

  19. 19.

    Crow, ‘Religious Sectarianism in the Lebanese Political System’, pp.492–498

  20. 20.

    D.K. Fieldhouse, ‘Western Imperialism in the Middle East 1914–1958’, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp.314–319; Stephen Longrigg, ‘Syria and Lebanon Under the French Mandate’, (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), pp.334–365; Khalaf, ‘Civil and Uncivil Violence in Lebanon’, pp.62–151; David Gordon, ‘Lebanon: The Fragmented Nation’, (London: Croom Helm, 1980), pp.17–49 & Zamir, ‘The Formation of Modern Lebanon’, pp.38–96.

  21. 21.

    Fieldhouse, ‘Western Imperialism in the Middle East 1914–1958’, p.333.

  22. 22.

    Salibi, p.19; Stewart, ‘Lebanon’s National Identity: Walking Between Raindrops?’, pp.159–164; Zamir, ‘The Formation of Modern Lebanon’, pp.38–96; Raghid El-Solh, ‘Lebanon and Arabism: National Identity and State Formation’, (London & New York: I.B Tauris & Co. Ltd, 2004), pp.200–287 & Makdisi, ‘Reconstructing the Nation-State’, pp.23–25.

  23. 23.

    Saeb Salam, ‘Lubnan wahad la lubnanan’, American University of Beirut Collection, No. 5, 17 April 1961, p.402.

  24. 24.

    Salibi, pp.19–37.

  25. 25.

    Odeh, ‘Lebanon: Dynamics of Conflict’, p.20.

  26. 26.

    Lijphart, ‘Consociational Democracy’, pp.207–215; Stewart, ‘Lebanon’s National Identity: Walking between raindrops?’, pp.153–180; Richard Dekmejian, ‘Consociational Democracy in Crisis: The Case of Lebanon’, Comparative Politics, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1978, pp.251–265; Brenda Seaver, ‘The Regional Sources of Power-Sharing Failure: The Case of Lebanon’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 115, No. 2, 2000, pp.247–271; Barak, ‘Intra-communal and Inter-communal Dimensions of Conflict and Peace in Lebanon’, pp.619–644; Imad Salamey, ‘Failing Consociationalism in Lebanon and Integrative Options’, International Journal of Peace Studies, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2009, pp.83–105; Hudson, ‘The Lebanese Crisis’, pp.109–115 & Imad Salamey & Rhys Payne, ‘Parliamentary Consociationalism in Lebanon: Equal Citizenry vs. Quoted Confessionalism’, The Journal of Legislative Studies, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp.451–473.

  27. 27.

    Lijphart, ‘Consociational Democracy’, p.211.

  28. 28.

    Nizar Hamzeh, ‘Clientalism, Lebanon: Roots and Trends’, Middle East Studies, Vol. 37, No. 3, 2001, p.167.

  29. 29.

    Johnson, ‘Class and Client in Beirut’, 1986, p.2.

  30. 30.

    ibid . p.12.

  31. 31.

    Khalaf, ‘Civil and Uncivil Violence in Lebanon’, pp.159–165.

  32. 32.

    Hudson, ‘The Lebanese Crisis’, pp.109–115.

  33. 33.

    Goria, ‘Sovereignty and Leadership in Lebanon 1943–1976’, p.10.

  34. 34.

    Augustus Richard Norton, ‘Changing Actors and Leadership Among the Shiites of Lebanon’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 482, 1985, p.112.

  35. 35.

    Khalaf, ‘Civil and Uncivil Violence in Lebanon’, p.151.

  36. 36.

    Seaver, ‘The Regional Sources of Power-Sharing Failure’, p.249.

  37. 37.

    Tabitha Petran, ‘The Struggle over Lebanon’, (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987), p.130.

  38. 38.

    ibid . p.169.

  39. 39.

    ibid . pp.161–163.

  40. 40.

    ibid . pp.110–131 & Augustus Norton, ‘Amal and the Shi’a’, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.37–58.

  41. 41.

    Crow, ‘Sectarianism in the Lebanese Political System’, pp.493–519.

  42. 42.

    Hudson in Lebanon: A History of Conflict and Consensus, p.234.

  43. 43.

    Odeh, ‘Lebanon: Dynamics of Conflict’, p.15.

  44. 44.

    Goria, ‘Sovereignty and Leadership in Lebanon 1943–1976’, pp.250–251.

  45. 45.

    Elie Chalala, ‘Syrian Policy in Lebanon, 1976–1984: Moderate Goals and Pragmatic Means’, Journal of Arab Affairs, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1985, pp.67–87.

  46. 46.

    Gordon, ‘Lebanon: The Fragmented Nation’, pp.70–72.

  47. 47.

    Deeb, ‘The Lebanese Civil War’, p.14.

  48. 48.

    Hanf, ‘Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon’, pp.181–226.

  49. 49.

    Stewart, ‘Lebanon’s National Identity’, p.171.

  50. 50.

    Makdisi, ‘Reconstructing the Nation-State’, p.26.

  51. 51.

    Augustus Norton, ‘Instability and Change in Lebanon’, American Arab Affairs, No. 10, 1984, p.84.

  52. 52.

    Hanf, ‘Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon’, pp.190–202.

  53. 53.

    Edgar O’balance, ‘Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92’, (London: Macmillan Press, 1998), pp.20–41.

  54. 54.

    Odeh, ‘Lebanon: Dynamics of Conflict’, pp.147–150.

  55. 55.

    ibid . pp.151–153 & Norton, ‘Amal and the Shi’a’, pp.59–83.

  56. 56.

    Richard Dekmejian, ‘Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World’, (New York: Syracuse University Press), 1995, pp.1–15; Ali Dessouki, ‘The impact of Islamism on the Arab System’, in Guazzin, ed., The Islamist Dilemma, (1995), pp.256–260 & Bernard Rougier, ‘Everyday Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam Amongst Palestinians in Lebanon’, (Harvard University Press, 2007), pp.260–275.

  57. 57.

    Hamzeh, ‘Islamism in Lebanon’, pp.47–50.

  58. 58.

    Mahmoud Soueid, ‘Interview with Shaykh Muhammad Hussayn Fadallah’, Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1, 1995, pp.1–2.

  59. 59.

    Khalaf, ‘Civil and Uncivil Violence in Lebanon’, p.209.

  60. 60.

    Goria, ‘Sovereignty and Leadership in Lebanon 1943–1976’, pp.39–43.

  61. 61.

    Hudson, ‘The Lebanese Crisis’, pp.112–115.

  62. 62.

    Mina Toksoz, ‘The Lebanese Conflict: Political Shifts, Regional Impact and Economic Outlook’, (London: The Economist Publications Ltd 1986); Martha Wenger, ‘Lebanon’s Fifteen-Year War 1975–1990’, Middle East Report, No. 162, 1990, pp.23–25; Salibi, ‘Crossroads to Civil War’, & Arnon Soffer ‘Lebanon: Where Demography is the Core of Politics and Life’, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1985, pp.197–205.

  63. 63.

    Schou, ‘The Breakdown of Conflict Management in Lebanon’, pp.193–204.

  64. 64.

    Itamar Rabinovich, ‘The War for Lebanon: 1970–1983’, (London: Cornell University Press, 1984), pp.34–59.

  65. 65.

    Richard Gabriel, ‘Operation Peace for Galilee’, (New York: Hill and Wang, 1985), p.37.

  66. 66.

    ibid . pp.30–35.

  67. 67.

    Asher Kaufman, ‘Contested Frontiers in the Syria- Lebanon-Israel Region’, (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2014), pp.111–127.

  68. 68.

    Norton, ‘Amal and the Shi’a’, p.136.

  69. 69.

    Rougier, ‘Everyday Jihad’ 2007, p.56.

  70. 70.

    Kamal Joumblatt, ‘I speak for Lebanon’, (London: Zed Press, 1977), p.64–69.

  71. 71.

    Rabil, ‘Embattled Neighbours: Syria, Israel, Lebanon’; Kaufman, ‘Contested Frontiers in the Syria- Lebanon-Israel Region’; Albert Hourani, ‘Syria and Lebanon: A Political Essay’, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); Rola El-Husseini, ‘Pax Syriani: Elite Politics in Postwar Lebanon’, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 2012) & Enver Koury, ‘The Crisis in the Lebanese System’, (Washington: AEI for Public Policy, 1976).

  72. 72.

    Moshe Ma’oz, ‘Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking’, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp.161–163.

  73. 73.

    Deeb, ‘The Lebanese Civil War’, pp.2–15, 189–195.

  74. 74.

    Reuven Avi-Ran, ‘The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975’, (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), pp.117–131.

  75. 75.

    Istvan Pogany, ‘The Arab League and Peacekeeping in the Lebanon’, (Aldershot: Avebury, 1987), pp.93–105.

  76. 76.

    ibid . pp.226–228.

  77. 77.

    Avi-Ran, ‘The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975’, p.225.

  78. 78.

    Hanf, ‘Coexistence in Wartime Lebanon’, pp.210–215, 237–241.

  79. 79.

    Deeb, ‘The Lebanese Civil War’, pp.2–15.

  80. 80.

    Robert Rabil, ‘Embattled Neighbours: Syria, Israel, Lebanon’, (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000), p.43.

  81. 81.

    Daniel Del Castillo, ‘Machinations: Ariel Sharon’s Attempt to Liquidate the Palestinian Question Through Invasion and the Siege of Beirut’, Center for Arab and Middle Eastern Studies, 2003, pp.1–10; George Ball, ‘Error and Betrayal in Lebanon’, (Washington: Foundation for Middle East Peace, 1984), pp.25–29; David Pollock, ‘Israel Since the Lebanon War’, in Robert Freedman, ed., The Middle East After the Israeli Invasion, (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986), pp.262–263 & Brian Parkinson, ‘Israel’s Lebanon war: Ariel Sharon and ‘Operation Peace for Galilee’, Journal of Third World Studies, Vol. 24 No. 2, 2007, pp.65–69.

  82. 82.

    Kirsten Schulze, ‘The Arab-Israeli Conflict’, (New York: Pearson Longman, 2008), p.57.

  83. 83.

    Odeh, ‘Lebanon’, pp.194–197.

  84. 84.

    Schulze, p.58.

  85. 85.

    Elie Salem, ‘Violence and Diplomacy in Lebanon, The Troubled Years 1982–1988’, (London: Tauris, 1995), p.242.

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  1. Institute of Digital Education Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Corrin Varady

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Varady, C. (2017). Lebanon: A Crowded State Without a Nation. In: US Foreign Policy and the Multinational Force in Lebanon. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53973-7_2

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