Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Stratum Corneum Lipids and Water-Holding Capacity

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Dermatoanthropology of Ethnic Skin and Hair

  • 1171 Accesses

Abstract

The epidermis protects the organism from mechanical, chemical and immunological insults and prevents excessive water loss. The dynamic continuous epidermal renewal is attributed to the keratinocytes that undergo programmed differentiation during their migration from the stratum basale toward the stratum corneum (SC), where they are transformed into the non-viable corneocytes. Corneocytes together with the ordered and densely packed lamellar lipids, including complex ceramides, cholesterol and fatty acids, constitute the permeability barrier that maintains skin integrity. The SC is a biochemically active structure that facilitates its intrinsic hydration, cohesion, integrity and thickness and the loss of corneocytes upon completion of the maturation process during desquamation. Under normal conditions, the water content of the SC is vital for maintaining tissue flexibility and biochemical activity. The water-holding capacity of the SC is attributed to at least three components that are related to the spatial arrangement of corneocytes, the organization of the intercellular lamellar lipids and the presence of natural moisturizing factors. Interestingly, the actual lipid composition and the hydration of the SC exhibits differences related to the anatomical location, skin depth, age, sex and dermal dysfunctions as well as seasonal variations and interindividual and racial variability.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Bouwstra JA, Ponec M. The skin barrier in healthy and diseased state. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006;1758:2080–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Baroni A, Buommino E, De Gregorio V, Ruocco E, Ruocco V, Wolf R. Structure and function of the epidermis related to barrier properties. Clin Dermatol. 2012;30:257–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Ya-Xian Z, Suetake T, Tagami H. Number of cell layers of the stratum corneum in normal skin—relationship to the anatomical location on the body, age, sex and physical parameters. Arch Dermatol Res. 1999;291:555–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Simpson CL, Patel DM, Green KJ. Deconstructing the skin: cytoarchitectural determinants of epidermal morphogenesis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2011;12:565–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Böhling A, Bielfeldt S, Himmelmann A, Keskin M, Wilhelm KP. Comparison of the stratum corneum thickness measured in vivo with confocal Raman spectroscopy and confocal reflectance microscopy. Skin Res Technol. 2014;20:50–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Menon GK, Cleary GW, Lane ME. The structure and function of the stratum corneum. Int J Pharm. 2012;435:3–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Tagami H. Electrical measurement of the hydration state of the skin surface in vivo. Br J Dermatol. 2014;171(S3):29–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Webb A, Li A, Kaur P. Location and phenotype of human adult keratinocyte stem cells of the skin. Differentiation. 2004;72:387–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Eckhart L, Lippens S, Tschachler E, Declercq W. Cell death by cornification. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013;1833:3471–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Cichorek M, Wachulska M, Stasiewicz A, Tymińska A. Skin melanocytes: biology and development. Postepy Dermatol Alergol. 2013;30:30–41.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Irmak MK. Multifunctional Merkel cells: their roles in electromagnetic reception, finger-print formation, Reiki, epigenetic inheritance and hair form. Med Hypotheses. 2010;75:162–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Matsui T, Amagai M. Dissecting the formation, structure and barrier function of the stratum corneum. IntImmunol. 2015;27:269–80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Windoffer R, Beil M, Magin TM, Leube RE. Cytoskeleton in motion: the dynamics of keratin intermediate filaments in epithelia. J Cell Biol. 2011;194:669–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Pan X, Hobbs RP, Coulombe PA. The expanding significance of keratin intermediate filaments in normal and diseased epithelia. Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2013;25:47–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Loschke F, Seltmann K, Bouameur JE, Magin TM. Regulation of keratin network organization. CurrOpin Cell Biol. 2015;32:56–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Rabionet M, Gorgas K, Sandhoff R. Ceramide synthesis in the epidermis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014;1841:422–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Rawlings AV, Harding CR. Moisturization and skin barrier function. Dermatol Ther. 2004;17:43–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Raymond AA, Gonzalez de Peredo A, Stella A, Ishida-Yamamoto A, Bouyssie D, Serre G, Monsarrat B, Simon M. Lamellar bodies of human epidermis: proteomics characterization by high throughput mass spectrometry and possible involvement of CLIP-170 in their trafficking/secretion. Mol Cell Proteomics. 2008;7:2151–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Kezic S, Jakasa I. Filaggrin and skin barrier function. Curr Probl Dermatol. 2016;49:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Sahle FF, Gebre-Mariam T, Dobner B, Wohlrab J, Neubert RH. Skin diseases associated with the depletion of stratum corneum lipids and stratum corneum lipid substitution therapy. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2015;28:42–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Rawlings AV. Molecular basis for stratum corneum maturation and moisturization. Br J Dermatol. 2014;171(Suppl 3):19–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Bielfeldt S, Böhling A, Wilhelm K-P. Bioengineering methods to assess aging parameters in the depth of the skin. SOFW. 2011;J137:2–9.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Imbert I, Guerif-Ferreira Y, Oberto G, Berghi A, Mouser P, Cucumel K, Domloge N. In vivo study of age-related skin changes using in vivo confocal microscopy. IFSCC1. 2012:15–21.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Rein H. Die Gleichstromleitereigenschaften und elektromotorischen Kräfte der menschlichen Haut unddihre Auswertungzur Unterscuchung von Funktionszuständen des Organes I-IV. Ztschr f Biol. 1926;85:195–247.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Machado M, Salgado TM, Hadgraft J, Lane ME. The relationship between transepidermal water loss and skin permeability. Int J Pharm. 2010;384:73–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Michaels AS, Chandrasekaran SK, Shaw JE. Drug permeation through human skin: theory and in vitro experimental measurement. AIChE J. 1975;21:985–96.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Harding CR, Watkinson A, Rawlings AV, Scott IR. Dry skin, moisturization and corneodesmolysis. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2000;22:21–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Robinson M, Visscher M, Laruffa A, Wickett R. Natural moisturizing factors (NMF) in the stratum corneum (SC). I. Effects of lipid extraction and soaking. J Cosmet Sci. 2010;61:13–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Feingold K, Elias P. The important role of lipids in the epidermis and their role in the formation and maintenance of the cutaneous barrier. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014;1841:279.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Elias PM. Epidermal barrier function: intercellular lamellar lipid structures, origin, composition and metabolism. J Control Release. 1991;15:199–208.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. van Smeden J, Janssens M, Gooris GS, Bouwstra JA. The important role of stratum corneum lipids for the cutaneous barrier function. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2014;1841:295–313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Mizutani Y, Mitsutake S, Tsuji K, Kihara A, Igarashi Y. Ceramide biosynthesis in keratinocyte and its role in skin function. Biochimie. 2009;91:784–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Hatfield RM, Fung LW. Molecular properties of a stratum corneum model lipid system: large unilamellar vesicles. Biophys J. 1995;68:196–207.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Takigawa H, Nakagawa H, Kuzukawa M, Mori H, Imokawa G. Deficient production of hexadecanoic acid in the skin is associated in part with the vulnerability of atopic dermatitis patients to colonization by Staphylococcus aureus. Dermatology. 2005;211:240–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Janssens M, van Smeden J, Gooris GS, Bras W, Portale G, Caspers PJ, Vreeken RJ, Hankemeier T, Kezic S, Wolterbeek R, Lavrijsen AP, Bouwstra JA. Increase in short-chain ceramides correlates with an altered lipid organization and decreased barrier function in atopic eczema patients. J Lipid Res. 2012;53:2755–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Giacomoni PU, Mammone T, Teri M. Gender-linked differences in human skin. J Dermatol Sci. 2009;55:144–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Darlenski R, Fluhr JW. Influence of skin type, race, sex, and anatomic location on epidermal barrier function. Clin Dermatol. 2012;30:269–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Wan DC, Wong VW, Longaker MT, Yang GP, Wei FC. Moisturizing different racial skin types. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2014;7:25–32.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Rawlings AV, Matts PJ. Stratum corneum moisturization at the molecular level: an update in relation to the dry skin cycle. J Invest Dermatol. 2005;124:1099–110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Bouwstra JA, de Graaff A, Gooris GS, Nijsse J, Wiechers JW, van Aelst AC. Water distribution and related morphology in human stratum corneum at different hydration levels. J Invest Dermatol. 2003;120:750–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Richter T, Peuckert C, Sattler M, Koenig K, Riemann I, Hintze U, Wittern KP, Wiesendanger R, Wepf R. Dead but highly dynamic-the stratum corneum is divided into three hydration zones. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2004;17:246–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Groen D, Poole DS, Gooris GS, Bouwstra JA. Is an orthorhombic lateral packing and a proper lamellar organization important for the skin barrier function? Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1808:1529–37.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Ishikawa J, Narita H, Kondo N, Hotta M, Takagi Y, Masukawa Y, Kitahara T, Takema Y, Koyano S, Yamazaki S, Hatamochi A. Changes in the ceramide profile of atopic dermatitis patients. J Invest Dermatol. 2010;130:2511–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Berardesca E, Maibach HI. Racial differences in sodium lauryl sulphate induced cutaneous irritation: black and white. Contact Dermatitis. 1988;18:65–70.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Denda M, Sato J, Masuda Y, Tsuchiya T, Koyama J, Kuramoto M, Elias PM, Feingold KR. Exposure to a dry environment enhances epidermal permeability barrier function. J Invest Dermatol. 1998;111:858–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Guenther L, Lynde CW, Andriessen A, Barankin B, Goldstein E, Skotnicki SP, Gupta SN, Choi KL, Rosen N, Shapiro L, Sloan K. Pathway to dry skin prevention and treatment. J Cutan Med Surg. 2012;16:23–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 2nd Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Medical School, ‘Attikon’ General University Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Rimini 1, 12462, Haidari, Greece

    Dimitrios Rigopoulos

  2. Department of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, M. Asias 75, 11527, Athens, Greece

    Ekaterini Tiligada

Authors
  1. Dimitrios Rigopoulos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ekaterini Tiligada
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dimitrios Rigopoulos .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Dermatology, Center for Ethnic Skin, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Neelam A. Vashi

  2. University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA

    Howard I. Maibach

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Rigopoulos, D., Tiligada, E. (2017). Stratum Corneum Lipids and Water-Holding Capacity. In: Vashi, N., Maibach, H. (eds) Dermatoanthropology of Ethnic Skin and Hair. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53961-4_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53961-4_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-53960-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-53961-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation