The Origins, Nature, and Location of Multiculturalism in Post-war Britain

Fazakarley, Jed

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53792-4_6

Jed Fazakarley⁵

Part of the book series: Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series ((CAL))

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Abstract

The previous chapters of this book have addressed specific areas of British multiculturalism, with especial attention to the place of English Muslims. One salient theme within this analysis has been the unevenness and variety within British multiculturalism. This has arisen primarily from the reticence of national government to interfere in questions of “race relations,” and in general to “politicize” ethnicity. There are of course exceptions to this, primarily in the form of legislation regarding both immigration and racial discrimination. Yet decentralizing impulse has been persistent throughout the period studied.

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Notes

1.
Goodhart, British Dream, 170; Lopez, Origins, 2.
2.
Lopez, ibid. , 165.
3.
Tariq Modood, Multiculturalism: a Civic Idea (Cambridge: Polity, 2007), 3.
4.
Uberoi, “Multiculturalism and the Canadian Charter”, 808; Taylor, “Interculturalism, Multiculturalism”, 336.
5.
Ubeori, ibid , 805–27; Modood, Multiculturalism, 15–6; Reva Joshee, “Citizenship and Multicultural Education in Canada: from Assimilation to Social Cohesion” in James A. Banks ed., Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives (San Francisco, CA: Jossy Bass, 2004), 127–58.
6.
Uberoi, ibid. , 807.
7.
Modood and Uberoi, “Has Multiculturalism…Retreated?”, 131.
8.
Commission on the Future of Multi-ethnic Britain, The Future of Multi-ethnic Britain (London: Profile, 2000), 105.
9.
Gwenda Tavan, “The Dismantling of the White Australia Policy: Elite Conspiracy or Will of the Australian People?”, Australian Journal of Political Science 39: 1 (2004), 114–20.
10.
Ibid. , 120–21; Lopez, Origins, 372.
11.
Lopez, ibid. , 446.
12.
Erik Bleich, Race Politics in Britain and France: Ideas and Policymaking since the 1960s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 60.
13.
Rose, Colour and Citizenship, 240.
14.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/68, Soskice, “Commonwealth Immigration Committee…a Package Deal…”, 31/12/64
15.
Legislation.gov.uk, “Local Government Act, 1966”, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1966/42/section/11, accessed 28/12/2016.
16.
Ibid. , HO 376/115, J.T.A. Howard-Drake to J.E. Hannigan, [1967]
17.
THLHLA, LBTH archives, Co-ordinating Committee for the Social Services (CCSS) minutes, L/THL/A/16/1/1, 7/9/67.
18.
LMA, GLCEMC presented papers, GLC/DG/PRE/49/1, GLC, “Section 11…”, 7/9/81
19.
LMA, ILEAEOU, ILEA/EOU/01/09, ILEA, “Section 11 Review…”, 28/8/85
20.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/114, “Background Note”, [1966].
21.
LMA, ILEA/EOU/01/35, National Movement for Anti-racism in Education, “NAME on Swann”, 15.
22.
LMA, ILEAEOU, ILEA/EOU/1/36, GLC, “Role of Section 11 Workers…”, 27/1/84.
23.
Dilip Hiro, Black British, 243.
24.
Malcolm Cross, Harbhajan Brah and Mike McLeod, Racial Equality and the Local State: an Evaluation of Policy Implementation in the London Borough of Brent (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1991), 79–98.
25.
Commission on the Future of Multi-ethnic Britain, Future of Multi-ethnic Britain, 149.
26.
LSE Library, PS collection, SHORE/19/16, Harold Wilson, “Birmingham Speech”, 5/68.
27.
Rose, Colour and Citizenship, 623.
28.
Ibid. , 622; Plowden Report, pp. 131–77.
29.
John McCarthy, Partnership, Collaborative Planning and Urban Regeneration (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 28; PHM, LPRD memoranda, RD194, 12/71, 40.
30.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 160.
31.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 67–8.
32.
PHM, LPRD memoranda, RE880, 12/76, 3.
33.
McCarthy, Partnership, 30.
34.
LMA, ILEAEOU, ILEA/EOU/1/37, Runnymede Trust, “…Race and the 1983 Election”, 6/83, 6; Jacobs, Black Politics, 156.
35.
Zig Layton-Henry, “Race and the Thatcher Government” in Layton-Henry and Rich eds., Race, Government, 89.
36.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 137; Lewis, Islamic Britain, 124.
37.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Ibid. .
38.
Bleich, Race Politics, 53.
39.
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40.
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41.
Ibid. , HO 376/37, and 376/102, Minute by T.G. Weiler, 4/7/69.
42.
Race Today, 7/70.
43.
HO papers, HO 376/102, “Memorandum on Community Relations”, [1970]; J.T.A. Howard-Drake to Halliday, 16/10/69.
44.
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45.
Martin MacEwan, Housing, Race and Law: the British Experience (London: Routledge, 1991).
46.
Charles Sutcliffe and John Board, “The Zoning Decision”, School Organization 8: 3 (1988), 291–300; Bob Carter and Jenny Williams, “Attacking Racism in Education” in Barry Troyna ed., Racial Equality in Education (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012 [1987]).
47.
Hackett, Foreigners, 113–5.
48.
Peter Sanders, “Anti-Discrimination Law Enforcement in Britain”, 75–82 in Nathan Glazer and Ken Young ed., Ethnic Pluralism and Public Policy: Achieving Equality in the United States and Britain (London: Heinemann, 1983); Guardian, 7/4/80, 25/4/89.
49.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292D/805.9/17, TUC, “Ethnic Monitoring”, 21/3/83;
50.
Guardian, 16/11/70.
51.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/117, “Statistics on the Basis of Colour…2 March 1970” and Weiler to Waddell, 4/5/70.
52.
Ibid. , Working Party on Departmental Statistics for Commonwealth Immigrants, “Report”, [1970]; HO 376/112, London Boroughs Committee/AMC, “Immigration from the Commonwealth”, 10/12/65.
53.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292D/805.91/8 TUCERC, “Workplace Ethnic Monitoring”, 23/3/83
54.
ibid. , MSS.292D/805.9/7, RRB, “Principles and Methods…”, 1/75; CRE, Code of Practice.
55.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/89, Maurice Foley to local authorities, 5/8/65.
56.
Ibid. , V.P.M. Nicholls to J.T.A. Howard-Drake, 14/7/65.
57.
Ibid. , Nicholls to Foley, 23/7/65.
58.
Benjamin W. Heinemann, The Politics of the Powerless: a Study of the Campaign Against Racial Discrimination (London: Oxford University Press, 1972), 52–7.
59.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/23, “Note of a Meeting Held…on 1st November 1967…”.
60.
See minutes in Ibid. , HO 376/29.
61.
Ibid. , HO 376/29, Peppard to J.T.A. Howard-Drake, 9/11/67
62.
Rose ed., Colour and Citizenship, 730–1.
63.
Michael J. Hill and Ruth M. Isaacharoff, Community Action and Race Relations: a Study of Community Relations Councils in Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 2; Solomos and Back, Social Change, 45.
64.
LMA, LCSS papers, ACC1888/115, Standing Conference of Councils of Social Services, “Welfare of Coloured Workers: Pakistanis”, 6/7/60.
65.
Middlesex County Times and Gazette, 22/6/63.
66.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 9.
67.
Anthony Messina, Race and Party Competition in Britain (New York: Clarendon Press, 1989), 56.
68.
LMA, LCSS papers, ACC1888/123, LCSS, “Commonwealth Immigrants in Greater London”, 1/63, 23.
69.
Home Office, Immigration from the Commonwealth, 16–7.
70.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 23; Messina, Race and Party Competition, p. 55.
71.
TNA. HO papers, HO 376/93, “Voluntary Liaison Committees…”; HO 376/95, “Note of Meeting between Mr Ennals and Miss Nadine Peppard on 23rd April, 1968”.
72.
Ira Katznelson, “The Politics of Racial Buffering in Nottingham, 1954–1968”, Race & Class 11: 4 (1970), 431–446.
73.
Kenneth Newton, Second City Politics: Democratic Processes and Decision-Making in Birmingham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 217.
74.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 15.
75.
NCCI, Liaison 4 (3/66), 8.
76.
Daniel Lawrence, Black Migrants: White Natives: a Study of Race Relations in Nottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), 180–81.
77.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 120–260.
78.
Ibid. , 176–7, 180, 196; Lawrence, Black Migrants, 180.
79.
Messina, Race and Party Competition, 77.
80.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/117, John Burgh to CRC, 25/5/72; Middlesex County Times & Gazette, 24/6/77.
81.
Bradford Telegraph & Argus, 27/4/76
82.
Messina, Race and Party Competition, 73.
83.
Kalbir Shukra, The Changing Pattern of Black Politics in Britain (London: Pluto Press, 1998), 57.
84.
Andrew Dorn and Paul Hibbert, “A Comedy of Errors: Section 11 Funding and Education” in Troyna ed., Racial Inequality in Education, 70.
85.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 3.
86.
Solomos and Back, Social Change, 45–6.
87.
Guardian, 30/01/68.
88.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 5.
89.
LMA, LCSS papers, ACC1888/121, Ruth Slade, “Area Reports…Sheffield”, 7/65.
90.
Katznelson, “Politics of Racial Buffering”, 435.
91.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292B/805.94/3, Wolverhampton City Council to CIAC, 30/1/64.
92.
Ibid. , MSS.292B/805.94/1, CCA, “CIAC: Questionnaire”, 7/11/62.
93.
WYASB, TC papers, BBD 1/7/T13687, Clerk to Blackburn Town Clerk, 25/7/67.
94.
Ibid. , BBD 1/7/T9644, AMC, “Memorandum of Evidence”, 1963.
95.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292B/805.93/1, TUC, “CIAC: Progress Report”, 17/2/64
96.
MCL, Manchester Medical Officer of Health reports, “Report…for 1968”
97.
WYASB, TC papers, BBD 1/7/16, “Reports on the Problems of Coloured School Leavers…”, [1973].
98.
Ibid. ; LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA/CL/PRE/24, P955, “Education in a Multi-ethnic Society…”, 1982, 10.
99.
CRC, Between two Cultures, 56.
100.
Jed Fazakarley, “Multiculturalism’s Categories and Transnational Ties: the Bangladeshi Campaign for Independence in Britain, 1971”, Immigrants & Minorities 34: 1 (2016), 49–69.
101.
The Asian, 8/78.
102.
John King, Three Asian Associations in Britain (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1994), 47; Spitalfields News, Spring 1983.
103.
Jean Ellis, Breaking New Ground: Community Development with Asian Communities (London: Bedford Square, 1989), 93.
104.
Stuart Lansley, Sue Goss and Christian Wolmar, Councils in Conflict: the Rise and Fall of the Municipal Left (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1989), 123.
105.
GLC, The GLC’s Work to Assist Ethnic Minorities (London: GLC, 1983), 1.
106.
GLC, Ethnic Minorities and the Abolition of the GLC (London: GLC, 1983), 13.
107.
Hiro, Black British, White British, 243.
108.
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110.
Mano Candappa and Daniele Joly, Local Authorities, Ethnic Minorities and ‘Pluralist Integration’: a Study of Five Local Authority Areas (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations), 48, 85–6; Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 41; Halstead, Education, Justice, 18.
111.
Candappa and Joly, ibid. , 109; Daisy Payling, “‘Socialist Republic of South Yorkshire’: Grassroots Activism and Left-Wing Solidarity in 1980s Sheffield”, Twentieth Century British History 25: 4 (December, 2014), 624.
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114.
Herman Ouseley, “Local Authority Race Relations Initiatives” in Colin Fudge and Martin Boddy eds., Local Socialism? Labour Councils and New Left Alternatives (London: Macmillan, 1984), 133; Garbaye, Local Power, 57.
115.
Lansley, Goss and Walmer, Councils in Conflict, 124–5; Ben-Tovim, et al., Local Politics of Race, 113; Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 11; Candappa and Joly, Local Authorities, 75, 87; Garbaye, ibid .; LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/20, MCCR, “MCC and Racial Equality…”, 7/82.
116.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/20, MCCR, “MCC and Racial Equality…”, 7/82.
117.
Middlesex County Times and Gazette, 24/6/77
118.
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119.
Ibid. , ILEA/EOU/1/9, ILEA, “Response to S11 Postal Survey”, 6/83 2–3.
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121.
Lewis, “Areas of Ethnic Negotiation” in Modood and Werbner eds., Politics of Multiculturalism, 133.
122.
Ouseley, “Local Authority Race Relations Initiatives”, 146, 180–1.
123.
Candappa and Joly, Local Authorities, 53–4, 150.
124.
Ibid. , 51; Solomos & Back, Social Change, 181.
125.
Katznelson, “Politics of Racial Buffering”, 440; WYASB, TC papers, BBD 1/7/16, “Reports on the Problems of Coloured School Leavers…”, [1973], David Reid, “Social Policy and the Bangladeshi Community in Tower Hamlets: The Response by Local Housing Authorities” (unpublished Masters thesis, University of Warwick, 1979).
126.
Ouseley, “Local Authority Race Relations Initiatives”, 150.
127.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/20, MCCR, “MCC and Racial Equality…”, 7/82.
128.
GMCRO, Margaret Roth papers, GB127.M746/ 1, MCC Director of Personnel, “Equal Opportunities in Employment”, 11/10/83; THLHLA, LBTH papers, LBTH Joint Housing Management Committee (JHMC) minutes, L/THL/A/36/1/5, “Multi-Committee Report: Ethnic Record Keeping…” 1986.
129.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 32, 143.
130.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 4.
131.
Ouseley, “Local Authority Race Relations Initiatives”, 136–7.
132.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 86–7.
133.
Adam Lent, “The Labour Left, Local Authorities, and New Social Movements in Britain in the Eighties”, Contemporary Politics 7: 1 (2001), 20.
134.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 41
135.
Candappa and Joly, Local Authorities, 52.
136.
Guardian, 23/1/86; Yunus Samad, “The Plural Guises of Multiculturalism: Conceptualising a Fragmented Paradigm” in Modood and Werbner eds., Politics of Multiculturalism, 248–51.
137.
David Mullins, “Housing and Urban Policy”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 17: 1 (1989).
138.
Davina Cooper, Sexing the City: Lesbian and Gay Politics within the Activist State (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1994), 91–8.
139.
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140.
Liverpool Black Caucus, The Racial Politics of Militant in Liverpool: Black Community’s Struggle for Participation in Local Politics, 1980–86 (London: Runnymede Trust, 1986); Solomos and Back, Social Change, 94.
141.
Solomos and Back, ibid. , 179.
142.
Guardian, 17/5/91.
143.
The Times, 10/12/90.
144.
Department of the Environment, Streamlining the Cities: Government Proposals for Reorganising Local Government in Greater London and the Metropolitan Counties (London: HMSO, 1983).
145.
Hakim Adi, West Africans in Britain: Nationalism, Pan-Africanism, and Communism (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1998), 21–41; Ramdin, Black Working Class, 111–28.
146.
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147.
Adams, Across Seven Seas, 163.
148.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 5–6.
149.
Katznelson, “Politics of Racial Buffering”, 434.
150.
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151.
Katznelson, “Politics of Racial Buffering”, 434.
152.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 138–9.
153.
Ibid. , 135; KLSL, KCRC papers BK61/14, KCRC, “Attendance Record…1972/3”; WYASB, YCCR papers, 49D79/2/2/18, MCCR, Annual Report, 1968–9.
154.
Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 88.
155.
Ibid. , 140–48.
156.
John Rex and Robert Moore, Race, Community and Conflict: a Study of Sparkbrook (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), 166; Heinemann, Powerless, 94.
157.
Sydney Collins, Coloured Minorities in Britain: Studies in British Race Relations Based on African, West Indian and Asiatic Immigrants (London: Lutterworth, 1957), 206–8.
158.
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159.
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160.
Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe, 48.
161.
Ramdin, Black Working Class, 395.
162.
Hiro, Black British, 141.
163.
Ramdin, ibid. , 418, 423, 431–2; Guardian, 6/10/85.
164.
Heinemann, Powerless, 93; Mashriq, 10/2/68.
165.
BCA, IWA-GB papers, MS2141/A/7/6, Michael Dummett, “Immigrant Organizations”, 20/9/68
166.
Heinemann, Powerless, 91.
167.
PHM, London District Communist Party (LDCP) papers, CP/LON/RACE/2/1, CPGB Information Department, “Racialism and ‘Black Power’”, 10/5/68; Hiro, Black British, 142.
168.
The Times, 2/1/69.
169.
Rosie Wild, “‘Black was the Colour”, 25–46.
170.
The Times, 3/1/69, 6/1/69.
171.
East London Advertiser, 24/4/70.
172.
Glynn, Class, Ethnicity, and Religion, 108.
173.
Wild, “Black was the Colour”, 30; R.E.R. Bunce and Paul Field, “Obi B. Egbuna, C.L.R. James and the Birth of Black Power in Britain: Black Radicalism in Britain 1967–72”, Twentieth Century British History 22: 3 (2011), 407.
174.
Wild, ibid. , 30.
175.
Hiro, Black British White British, 63.
176.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 58; Rex and Moore, Race, Community and Conflict, 167.
177.
Akhtar, British Muslim Politics, 62.
178.
Shaw, Kinship and Continuity, 117.
179.
John Rex, Ethnic Identity and Ethnic Mobilisation in Britain (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1991), 102; Werbner, Migration Process, 321–4.
180.
The Times, 5/7/76.
181.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 370–1; Ron Geaves, Sectarian Influences, 206; Malik, Fatwa to Jihad, 101.
182.
Pnina Werbner, “Theorising Complex Diasporas: Purity and Hybridity in the South Asian Public Sphere in Britain”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies (September, 2004), 905.
183.
GMCRO, Appendix to MCC minutes, MCC Social Services Committee, “Urban Programme Circular 17…”, 1978; Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 10.
184.
Joly, Britannia’s Crescent, 22
185.
Saifullah Khan, “Pakistanis in Britain”, 225.
186.
Jacobs, Black Politics, 59.
187.
Ibid. , 122–4.
188.
WYASB, TC papers, BBD1/7/16, John Naylor to Clerk, 4/5/73.
189.
MacDonald ed., Murder in the Playground, 38.
190.
LMA, GLC/DG/PRE/107/17, GLC Director General’s presented papers, Len Bennett, “Housing of Bengalis…”, 22/5/78.
191.
The Times, 5/6/78.
192.
Evening News, 17/6/78.
193.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/36, Jim Callaghan, [speech at Chatham House], 8/2/68
194.
CRC, Between two Cultures, 49, 56–7.
195.
Farzana Shain, “Uneasy Alliances: British Muslims and Socialists since the 1950s”, Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics 25: 1 (2009), 99; Race Today, 7–8/85.
196.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292D/805.9/11, JCAR, “Basic Information”, [1978].
197.
Ramamurthy, “Asian Youth Movements”, 44.
198.
Swadhinata Trust, “Mr Jamal Hassan”, http://www.swadhinata.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=159&Itemid=191, accessed 25/12/16.
199.
Eade, “Bangladeshi Community Organization and Leadersip in Tower Hamlets, East London” in Clarke, Vertovec and Peach eds., Aspects, 324; Guardian, 2/4/85.
200.
Glynn, Class, Ethnicity, and Religion, 107–10; Swadhinata Trust, “Mr Nikhilesh Chakraborty”, http://www.swadhinata.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=144&Itemid=174, accessed 25/12/16.
201.
Ramamurthy, “Asian Youth Movements”, 41; Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 41.
202.
Ramamurthy, Ibid. , 39.
203.
LSE Library, Shore papers, LSE/SHORE/21/27, FBYO, Annual Report, 1982–3.
204.
Glynn, Class, Ethnicity, and Religion, 49, 109.
205.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 36, 158; BCA, IWA-GB papers, MS2141/A/1/3, IWA-GB, “…Successful Conference Held…”, [1978]
206.
Ramamurthy ed., Kala Tara, 23.
207.
Middlesex County Times and Gazette, 20/5/77.
208.
Guardian, 15/7/78; The Times, 15/7/78.
209.
Guardian, 8/6/76
210.
Ramamurthy ed., Kala Tara, 16–17; TIA, Manchester AYM, “Membership Form”, http://www.tandana.org, 1981, accessed 25/12/16.
211.
Ramamurthy ed., ibid. , 15.
212.
Shain, “Uneasy Alliances”, 99.
213.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 86; TIA, Bradford AYM, “Aims & Objectives”, http://www.tandana.org, accessed 25/12/16.
214.
Ramamurthy, ibid. , 90.
215.
BCA, IWA-GB papers, MS 2141/A/8/2/2, IWAGB Birmingham branch, “Press Release”, 22/10/73; IWAGB Birmingham branch, “News: Domestic Violence”, 3/10/86.
216.
East London Advertiser, 27/1/84; St Mary’s News Bulletin, 1987; THLHLA, LBTH, PC minutes, L/THL/A/32/2/9, LBTH Chief Executive, “Ratification of Action…”, 5/11/84.
217.
LMA, ILEAEOU, ILEA/EOU/1/20, “Islington Consultative Committee”, [1983].
218.
Garbaye, “Birmingham”, 99.
219.
Ramamurthy, “Asian Youth Movements”, 51.
220.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 92.
221.
Swadhinata Trust, “Ms. Mithu Ghosh”, http://www.swadhinata.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=165&Itemid=197, accessed 25/12/16.
222.
Southall Black Sisters, Against the Grain: a Celebration of Struggle and Survival (Southall: Southall Black Sisters, 1990), 1.
223.
Brent Asian Women’s Refuge and Resource Centre, “Brent Asian Women’s Refuge and Resource Centre”, Feminist Review 17 (Autumn, 1984), 98.
224.
SBS, Against the Grain, 5–15, 57.
225.
Malik, From Fatwa to Jihad, 78–9; Shain, “Uneasy Alliances”, 101.
226.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 5
227.
TIA, Bradford AYM, “Aims & Objectives”.
228.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 166.
229.
Ramamurthy ed., Kala Tara, 17.
230.
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231.
TIA, Free the Bradford 12 National Mobilising Committee, “Self Defence – Our Right!” 1982, http://www.tandana.org, accessed 25/12/26.
232.
Ibid. , Manchester AYM, Liberation 2, 4/8, http://www.tandana.org, accessed 25/12/16.
233.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 110.
234.
King, Three Asian Associations, 57.
235.
Eade, “Bangladeshi Community Organization”, 319.
236.
THLHLA, LBTH papers, PC minutes, L/THL/A/32/2/8, “Future of the Kobi Nazrul Centre”, 2/4/84
237.
Samad, “Politics of Islamic Identity”, 95.
238.
TIA, “National AYM: Constitution…”, n.d., http://www.tandana.org, accessed 6/3/14; Bradford Telegraph & Argus, 22/2/79.
239.
Ramamurthy, “Asian Youth Movements”, 53.
240.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 63–4, 133.
241.
Guardian, 24/12/81.
242.
SBS eds., Against the Grain, 3.
243.
GLC, GLCEMC minutes, GLC/DG/MIN/49/1, 12/7/82; Jacobs, Black Politics, 93; THLHLA, LBTH papers, PC minutes, L/THL/A/32/2/7, “Spitalfields Local Committee Grants”, 28/2/82.
244.
Ramaurthy, Black Star, 60–1.
245.
Ibid. , 175.
246.
Tony Grogan, “The Pickles Papers Chapter 8: The Taking of City Hall”, http://www.1in12.com/publications/archive/thepicklespapers/pickleschap8.html, accessed 25/12/16.
247.
Ramamurthy, Black Star, 161, 177.
248.
Lent, “Labour Left”, 11; Ali Riaz, Islam and Identity among British Bangladeshis: a Leap of Faith (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013), 120.
249.
Lent, ibid. , 13–15.
250.
PHM, LDCP papers, CP/LON/RACE/2/6, Barnet CRC, “BCRC into the 80s!!”, 4/80.
251.
LMA, GLCEMC minutes, GLC/DG/MIN/49/4, 18/6/84; GLCEMU presented papers, GLC/DG/PRE/49/5, MPA, “Grants…”, 1/83; MWC, “Grants…”, 1/83.
252.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1983–4, 3801.
253.
Ellis, Meeting Community Needs, 11.
254.
Eade and Garbin, “Competing Visions”, 188.
255.
Guardian, 15/8/85; Lewis, Islamic Britain, 145.
256.
Ahmed Andrews, “Muslim Attitudes towards Political Participation in the United Kingdom: a Case Study of Leicester” in W.A.R. Shadid and P.S. van Koningsveld eds., Muslims in the Margin: Political Responses to the Presence of Islam in Western Europe (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1996), 112; Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Equality, 32; Garbaye, “Birmingham”, 102–3, Elizabeth Scantlebury, “Muslims in Manchester: the Depiction of a Religious Community”, New Community 21: 3 (July, 1995), 429.
257.
Guardian, 2/4/86; Cross, Brah & McLeod, Racial Equality, 31–2.
258.
Phil Nanton and Marian Fitzgerald, “Race Policies in Local Government: Boundaries or Thresholds?” in Ball and Solomos eds., Race and Local Politics, 148.
259.
Shaw, Pakistani Community in Britain, 116–7.
260.
Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 14.
261.
Ellis, Meeting Community Needs, 5.
262.
Ibid. , 3–5.
263.
Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 130
264.
Nira Yuval-Davis, “Fundamentalism, Multiculturalism and Women in Britain” in Donald and Rattansi eds., Race, Culture and Difference, 284.
265.
LMA, GLCEMU presented papers, GLC/DG/MIN/49/1, SLIC, “Grants to Voluntary and Community Groups…”, 6/82.
266.
Ibid. , GLC/DG/PRE/49/5, MPA, “Grants…”;
267.
Ibid. , GLC/DG/PRE/49/7, GLC, “NKMT – Grant Application”, 22/4/83.
268.
Sasha Josephides, Towards a History of the Indian Workers’ Association (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1991), 23.
269.
Sahgal, “Secular Spaces”, 171.
270.
Ibid. , GLC/DG/PRE/49/2, RAWA, “Grants…”, 6/82.
271.
Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 81.
272.
Sunday Times, 10/10/82.
273.
Jacobs, Black Politics, 26; Malik, From Fatwa to Jihad, 57.
274.
Malik, ibid. , 73.
275.
Selbourne, Left Behind, 97.
276.
Rahsaan Maxwell, Ethnic Minority Migrants in Britain and France: Integration Trade-offs (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 121.
277.
Candappa and Joly, Local Authorities, 36.
278.
Lewis, “Areas of Ethnic Negotiation”, 134.
279.
Ouseley, “Local Authority Race Relations Initiatives”, 157–9.
280.
Usha Prashar and Shan Nicholas, Routes or Roadblocks? Consulting Minority Communities in London Boroughs (London: Runnymede Trust, 1986), 12, 16.
281.
MCL, MCC Race Unit, “Ethnic Minorities Directory”, [1991], 12–3.
282.
MCRO, Roth papers, GB127.M746/1, MCC Race Sub-Committee, “[M]eeting of the Race Sub-Committee…”, 26/3/85.
283.
Pnina Werbner, “Factionalism and Violence in British Pakistani Communal Politics” in Hastings Donnan and Pnina Werbner eds., Economy & Culture in Pakistan (London: Macmillan, 1991), 194.
284.
Ellis, Breaking New Ground, 103.
285.
Garbaye, “Birmingham”, 100.
286.
Romain Garbaye, Ethnic Minorities, Cities and Institutions: a Comparison of the Models of Management of Ethnic Diversity of a French and British City (Florence: European University Institute, 2000), 27.
287.
Graham Smith and Susan Stephenson, “The Theory and Practice of Group Representation: Reflections on the Government of Race Equality in Birmingham”, Public Administration 83: 2 (2005), 332.
288.
Samad, “Plural Guises”, 254; Smith and Stephenson, “Group Representation”, 331.
289.
Prashar and Nicholas, Routes or Roadblocks?, 20.
290.
Cross, Brah and McLeod, Racial Inequality, 141, 159–60.
291.
Maxwell, Ethnic Minority Migrants, 155.
292.
Gerd Baumann, Contesting Culture: Discourses of Identity in Multi-ethnic London (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 170.
293.
GLC, Consultation with Ethnic Minority Organizations, October-December 1982 (London: GLC, 1982).
294.
Smith and Stephenson, “Group Representation”, 333.
295.
Garbaye, Local Power, 108–14.
296.
WYASB, Town Clerk’s papers, BBD 1/7/T15401, Director of Education to Clerk, 28/1/71.
297.
TNA, AST papers, AST/7/1212, “Report of the Working Party on…Surplus Colonial Labour”, [1948]; “Inter-departmental Committee on Colonial People..”, 20/5/49.
298.
Ibid. , CO papers, CO/876/88, CO, “Empire Windrush”, 30/6/48; A.H. Poynton, “Empire Windrush: West Indian Workers”, 22/7/48; P. Holden to Ivor Cummings, 26/7/48.
299.
Ibid. , CO, A.H. Poynton, “Empire Windrush”, 22/7/48.
300.
Ibid. , CO/876/232, CO, “Statement Showing Dispersal…”, 30/9/51.
301.
Hackett, Foreigners, 91.
302.
For Birmingham and Bradford, see Dhaya, “Pakistani Ethnicity”, 97–103.
303.
Community Relations Commission, Housing in Multi-Racial Areas: Report of a Working Party of Housing Directors (London: CRC, 1976), 29–32.
304.
Smith and Whalley, Racial Minorities, 87.
305.
Avtar Brah, Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities (London: Routledge, 1996), 34; Panayi, Immigration History, 94.
306.
Hackett, Foreigners, 225.
307.
Gilroy, Ain’t no Black, 17; Ali Rattansi, Multiculturalism: a Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 1.
308.
Feldman, “Why the English Like Turbans”, 281–302.
309.
Garbaye, Local Power, 56, 59.
310.
Goodhart, British Dream, 170–97.
311.
Ibid. , 145.
312.
Sebastian Poulter, Ethnicity, Law and Human Rights: the English Experience (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 18, 42–65.
313.
Ibid. , 1151.

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Hertford College, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Jed Fazakarley

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Fazakarley, J. (2017). The Origins, Nature, and Location of Multiculturalism in Post-war Britain. In: Muslim Communities in England 1962-90. Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53792-4_6

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