Accommodation and Integration: Educating English Muslims, 1962–98

Fazakarley, Jed

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53792-4_2

Jed Fazakarley⁵

Part of the book series: Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series ((CAL))

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Abstract

Education has been the policy area most central to British multiculturalism, and the school has been the arena in which actors have felt most able to mould multiculturalism in their desired image. For ethnic minority parents, British schooling has been a source of anxiety. Such concerns have reflected fears that children will not be accorded equality of opportunity; will be educated “out of” their culture; and might exit schools unable to compete in the British jobs market. Muslim parents, like most Commonwealth immigrants, generally regarded British education as highly valuable. Colonial subjects were often led to idealize the educational system of the metropole.

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Notes

1.
Alison Shaw, Pakistani Community, 140.
2.
BHRU ed., Here to Stay, 144.
3.
Alison Shaw, “The Pakistani Community in Oxford” in Ballard ed., Desh Pardesh, 52.
4.
Mark Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity: an Examination of the Honeyford Affair 1984–5 (London: Falmer, 1988), 40–41.
5.
WYASB, Barkerend Immigrant Education Centre (BIEC) papers, 42D92/56, City of Bradford Education Department to BIEC, 1963.
6.
Ministry of Education, English for Immigrants (London: HMSO, 1963).
7.
Contra Hackett, Foreigners, 151.
8.
Department of Education and Science, Education Survey 13: the Education of Immigrants (London: HMSO, 1971), 18, 24–5.
9.
Ali Rattansi, “Changing the Subject”, 11.
10.
Ibid.
11.
Dilip Hiro, Black British, 297.
12.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292B/805.94/1, CIAC, “Evidence from Government Departments…”, 6/12/62.
13.
Greater Manchester County Records Office (GMCRO), Manchester, UK, Manchester City Council (MCC) papers, Appendix to Council Minutes 1964–5, City of Manchester Education Department, “Report for 1963–4”, 28–9.
14.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292B/805.94/5, CIAC, “Minutes of a Meeting…on 22nd February, 1963”.
15.
Ibid. , MSS.292B/805.93/1, TUC, “CIAC: Progress Report”, 17/2/64.
16.
Feldman, “Why the English Like Turbans”, 286.
17.
People’s History Museum, Manchester (UK), Labour Party Research Department (LPRD) memoranda, RE1041, 3/77, 4–5.
18.
GMCRO, MCC papers, Education Committee (EC) minutes, 1966–7, 865.
19.
Ibid. , “Education Committee Minutes, 1968–9”, 1295.
20.
Home Office, The Problems of Coloured School Leavers: Observations on the Report of the Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration (London: HMSO, 1970), 7.
21.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1977–8, 3189.
22.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/117, A.J. Langdon, “Ealing”, 19/7/72.
23.
David L. Kirp, Doing Good by Doing Little: Race and Schooling in Britain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 44.
24.
Trevor Burgin and Patricia Edson, Spring Grove: the Education of Immigrant Children (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), 30–32.
25.
DES, Education of Immigrants, 16.
26.
WYASB, TC’s papers, BBD 1/7/T15401, “…Education of Commonwealth Immigrants”, 20/10/70; BBD 1/7/16, “…Education of Children of Commonwealth Immigrants…”, 6/73.
27.
Ibid. , “Extract from the Minutes…”, 26/2/74.
28.
LMA, ILEA Policy Coordinating Committee (ILEAPCC) presented papers, ILEA/PRE/24/1, P11, “Survey of Immigrants…”, 29/5/70; PHM, 331.6/Box 232, Young Fabians, “Strangers Within”, 17, 10/65.
29.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 1, 8 and vol. 2, 67, 664, 666, 674, and 682.
30.
WYASB, TC’s papers, BBD 1/7/16, City of Bradford ESC, “…Education of Children of Commonwealth Immigrants”, 9/10/72.
31.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 686.
32.
Middlesex County Times and Gazette, 11/11/61.
33.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 316.
34.
Hackett, Foreigners, 163.
35.
Home Office, Immigration from the Commonwealth (London: HMSO, 1965), 11.
36.
Birmingham Central Archives (BCA), Birmingham, UK, Indian Workers Association-GB (IWA-GB) papers, MS 2141/A/8/2/2, IWA-GB Birmingham branch, “Report of the Executive Committee…”, 1; MS 2141/A/4/4, Jagmohan Joshi to Cllr Nigel Cook, 10/11/65.
37.
Middlesex County Times and Gazette, 7/4/62.
38.
Ibid. , 6/7/63.
39.
PHM, Labour Party Research Department (LPRD) memoranda, RE1041, 3/77; Lewis M. Killian, “School Busing in Britain: Policies and Perceptions”, Harvard Educational Review 49: 2 (Summer, 1979), 196; Middlesex County Times and Gazette, 6/7/63, 3/8/63.
40.
London School of Economics (LSE) Library Archives, London, UK, Peter Shore papers, SHORE/19/16, “Gallup Poll…”, 1968.
41.
WYASB, TC’s papers, BBD 1/7/T9644, City of Bradford ESC, “…Education of Commonwealth Immigrant Children”, 23/11/64.
42.
Ibid. , YCCR papers, 49D79/1/2/4, DES, “…Education of Immigrants”, 14/6/65.
43.
WYASB, TC’s papers, BBD 1/7/T15401, City of Bradford ECS, “…Education of Children of Commonwealth Immigrants…”, 3/71; TNA, HO papers, HO 376/141, P.F. Grant to L.P. Wright, 27/7/73.
44.
Ibid. , BBD 1/7/T16150, “…Education of Children of Commonwealth Immigrants”, 11/72; SCRRI, Education vol. 2, 41.
45.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/117, Walter Gilbey to David Lane, 13/7/73.
46.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292B/805.94/5, CIAC, “Minutes of a Meeting…on 22nd February, 1963”.
47.
PHM, 331.6/Box 233, CARD, “The White Paper”, 1965; Central Advisory Council for Education, Children and their Primary Schools: a Report of the Central Advisory Council for Education (London: HMSO, 1967), 72. [Hereafter cited as Plowden Report.]
48.
WYASB, TC’s papers, BBD 1/7/T15401, “…Education of Commonwealth Immigrants”, 20/10/70; 42D92/56, “…Education of Children of Commonwealth Immigrants”, 9/10/72.
49.
DES, Education of Immigrants, 19.
50.
Killian, “School Busing in Britain”, 169.
51.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 317.
52.
BHRU ed., Here to Stay, 144.
53.
WYASB, TC’s papers, City of Bradford ESC, “Children of Commonwealth Immigrant…”, 2/67; TNA, HO papers, HO 376/89, NCCI, “Minutes of a Meeting…on Thursday 22nd July 1965”.
54.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/117, “Note of a Meeting…5th March, 1971”; Bradford Telegraph and Argus, 22/3/79.
55.
LMA, London Council of Social Services (LCSS) papers, EIFC, “Education of the Immigrant Child…”, 1968; Bradford Telegraph and Argus, 13/8/77, 7/3/79.
56.
LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA/PRE/24/1, P11,“Survey of Immigrants…”, 29/5/70
57.
MRC, TUC papers, M55.292B/805.91/2, TUC to Anthony Crosland, 2/8/65.
58.
DES, Education of Immigrants, 21.
59.
Guardian, 19/9/73.
60.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/36, Equal Rights, “Race Relations Bill: Second Reading Briefing”, 14/4/68
61.
Ibid. , HO 376/47, J.T.A. Howard-Drake to T.G. Weiler, 21/5/68.
62.
Ibid. , HO 376/57, Weiler, “Race Relations Bill”, 28/6/68.
63.
Ibid. , G.E. Dudmen to Grinham, 30/5/68; David L. Kirp, “The Vagaries of Discrimination: Busing, Policy and Law in Britain”, The School Review 87: 3 (May 1979), 288.
64.
Kirp, Ibid. , 291.
65.
Guardian, 24/1/80; 22/6/85.
66.
DES, “Education of Immigrants”, 3.
67.
Burgin and Edson, Spring Grove, 49.
68.
CACE, Children and Their Primary Schools, 71.
69.
GMCRO, EC minutes, 1975–6, 395.
70.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 1, 57, 616.
71.
Ibid. , 27, 33; Plowden Report, 71.
72.
DES, Education of Immigrants, 12.
73.
PHM, LPRD memoranda, RE1041, 3/77.
74.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 695.
75.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes 1975–6, 400.
76.
Ibid. , 270.
77.
Legislation.gov.uk, “Race Relations Act 1976”, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1976/74/enacted, accessed 23/12/2016.
78.
On the political emergence of ethnic minorities, see Marian FitzGerald, Political Parties and Black People: Participation, Representation and Exploitation (London: Runnymede Trust, 1984), 7–14.
79.
Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Children from Ethnic Minority Groups, Education for All: Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Children from Ethnic Minority Groups (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1985), 389. [Hereafter cited as Swann Report.]
80.
PHM, LPRD memoranda, RE1041, 3/77.
81.
Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity, 40.
82.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1985–6, 1600.
83.
PHM, 331.6/Box 230, CRE, “Local Authorities…”.
84.
PHM, LPRD memoranda, RE1041, 3/77.
85.
LMA, ILEA Equal Opportunities Unit (ILEAEOU) papers, ILEA/EOU/1/35, National Anti-racist Movement in Education, “NAME on Swann”, [1985]; ibid. , ILEA/EOU/1/37, CRE, “Swann…”, 1985.
86.
Swann Report, 234.
87.
LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA/PRE/24/11, P787, “Multi-Ethnic Education: Progress Report”.
88.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1977–8, 3190.
89.
Sally Tomlinson, “Political Dilemmas in Multi‐Racial Education” in Zig Layton-Henry and Paul B. Rich eds., Race, Government & Politics in Britain (London: Macmillan, 1986), 193.
90.
Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity, 27, 49.
91.
LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA/PRE/24/11, P787, “Multi-Ethnic Education: Progress Report”, 1979.
92.
Ibid. , ILEA/PRE/24/14, P1245, “Education and Racial Discrimination…”, 1981.
93.
Ibid. , ILEA/PRE/24/15, P971, “Guidelines for Schools and Colleges: Racism”, 1982.
94.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1981–2, 1078.
95.
Hackett, Foreigners, 171–2.
96.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/10, ALA, “An Alternative to Section 11…”, 1987.
97.
Abdul Rashid in Anandi Ramamurthy ed., Kala Tara: a History of the Asian Youth Movements in Britain in the 1970s and 1980s, 26–7.
98.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1979–80, 3351.
99.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/9, Southwark Divisional MEECC to ILEA, 11/10/83
100.
Ibid. , ILEA/EOU/1/20.
101.
LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA/PRE/24/20, P228, “Tower Hamlets Initiative: BENTH”, 7/4/85.
102.
Jorgen Nielsen, “Muslims in English Schools”, Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs Journal 10: 1 (1989), 238.
103.
PHM, LPRD memoranda, RE1041, 3/77.
104.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 695; LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/9, “ILEA’s Strategy…”, 20/3/84; GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1979–80, 3336; ibid. , 1982–3, 1417.
105.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/22, “Race, Sex and Class: 2. Multi-ethnic Education…”, 1983.
106.
Ibid. , ILEA/EOU/1/10, ILEA, “Chief Inspector’s Department: Equality Statement”, 11/9/87, 36.
107.
Ian MacDonald ed., Murder in the Playground: the Burnage Report (London: Longsight, 1987), 237.
108.
Swann Report, 400.
109.
Ibid. , 406.
110.
CRE, Ethnic Minority Community Languages, 1, 11.
111.
Community Relations Commission, Between Two Cultures: a Study of Relationships between Generations in the Asian Community in Britain (London: Community Relations Commission, 1976), 60; LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/22,“Issues in Race and Education No. 35…”, 1982, 5.
112.
Swann Report, 22.
113.
PHM, LPRD papers, RE1041, “Labour Party: Race and Education”, 1977, 2.
114.
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115.
David Selbourne, Left Behind: Journeys into British Politics (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987), 101–2.
116.
Swann Report, 321–2.
117.
Ibid. , 320–1.
118.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/20, EI Harris, “Perspectives on Multi-Cultural Education”, 11/82.
119.
Swann Report, 551.
120.
PHM, LPRD papers, LP/RD/35/1, “Education in a Multicultural Society”, [1988], 3.
121.
Maud Blair and Madeleine Arnot, “Black and Anti-racist Perspectives on the National Curriculum and Government Educational Policy” in Anna S. King and Michael J. Reiss eds., The Multicultural Dimension of the National Curriculum (London: The Falmer Press, 1993), 271.
122.
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123.
Carlton Duncan, “A Secondary School Case Study” in ibid. , 228–9.
124.
Anna S. King, “Introduction” in ibid. , 2–3.
125.
MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292D/805.9/16, NUT, “Combatting Racialism in Schools…”, [1982].
126.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/20, Jagdish S. Gundara, “Reflections on Patterns…”, [1978].
127.
MRC TUC papers, MSS.292D/805.9/19, TUC Executive Committee, “Education for All…”, 23/4/85.
128.
Selbourne, Left Behind, 105–7.
129.
Daily Telegraph, 27/8/06; reprinted from Salisbury Review, 3/84.
130.
Selbourne, Left Behind, 107–9.
131.
Observer, 15/9/85.
132.
Yunus Samad, “The Politics of Islamic Identity among Bangladeshis and Pakistanis in Britain” in Terence Ranger, Yumas Samad and Ossie Stuart eds., Culture, Identity and Politics (Aldershot: Avebury, 1996), 96.
133.
Guardian, 11/3/85.
134.
Samad, “Politics of Islamic Identity”, 95–6.
135.
This paragraph draws upon McDonald ed., Murder in the Playground.
136.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1986–7, 384.3.
137.
PHM, LPRD papers, LP/RD/35/3, National Conference of Labour Women, “Racism”, 1988.
138.
MacDonald ed., Murder in the Playground, 403.
139.
Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe, 234.
140.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1968–9, 824.
141.
Stephen William Barton, The Bengali Muslims of Bradford: a Study of Their Observance of Islam, with Special Reference to the Function of the Mosque and the Work of the Imam (Leeds: University of Leeds, 1986), 69.
142.
Ministry of Education, English, 3.
143.
Sunday Times, 13/7/69.
144.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 421; WYASB, YCCR papers, 49D79/2/2/19, CRC, “Religious Education in a Multi-Religious Society”, 6/69.
145.
Muhammad Iqbal, “First World Conference on Muslim Education and Its Possible Implications for British Muslims”, Learning for Living 17: 3 (1978), 123–5.
146.
CRE, Ethnic Minority Community Languages, 3.
147.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/9, ILEA, “Posts Which No Longer Qualify…”, 20/6/84
148.
Ibid. , ILEA/EOU/1/22, “Race, Sex and Class: 2. Multi-ethnic Education…”, 1983, 10.
149.
Ibid. , Home Office to ILEA, 5/11/84.
150.
Ghulam Sarwar, Muslims and Education in the UK (London: MET, 1983), 10.
151.
WYASB, ibid. ; SCRRI, Education, vol. 1, 26; Burgin and Edson, Spring Grove, 96.
152.
Sarwar, Muslims in Education, 9.
153.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 350.
154.
WYASB, TC’s papers, BBD/1/7/16, “…Religious Education…”, 4/12/73.
155.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 551.
156.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1979–80, 3335.
157.
Swann Report, 180.
158.
Ibid. , LPRD papers, LP/RD/35/3, BAAC, “Labour Party Document…”, 1987; Tandana Internet Archive (TIA), Sheffield AYM, “Kala Mazdoor 2”, n.d., http://www.tandana.org, accessed 23/12/16.
159.
The Times, 5/7/76.
160.
Sarwar, Muslims in Education, 9.
161.
Muslim Parliament of Great Britain, White Paper on Muslim Education in Greater Britain (London: Muslim Parliament of Great Britain, 1992), 41.
162.
Jorgen S. Nielsen, “Muslims in Britain and Local Authority Responses” in Tomas Gerholm and Yngve Georg Lithman eds., The New Islamic Presence in Western Europe (London: Mansell, 1988), 69.
163.
GMCRO, MCC papers, EC minutes, 1985–6, 1015.
164.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 367, 502, 508, 608, 675, 694.
165.
Ibid. , 508.
166.
Nielsen, “Muslims in English Schools”, 229.
167.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 70; LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA/PRE/24/17, P119, “Religious Education…”, [1984].
168.
LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA2254, “Agreed Syllabus…”, 27/5/82.
169.
MCRO, MCC EC minutes, 1983–4, 1920.
170.
Swann Report, 254, 279–80.
171.
LMA, ILEAPCC presented papers, ILEA2254, “Agreed Syllabus…”, 27/5/82.
172.
LMA, ILEA Equal Opportunities Committee (ILEAEOC) minutes, ILEA/CL/MIN/10/1, 43–4.
173.
MCRO, MCC EC minutes, 1984–5, 613, 1736.
174.
Ibid. , 622; LMA, ILEAEOC minutes, ILEA/CL/MIN/10/1, 43–4; Nielsen, “Muslims in English Schools”, 238.
175.
Burgin and Edson, Spring Grove, 16.
176.
WYASB, BIEC papers, 42D92/56, “…Children of Commonwealth Immigrants”, 2/7/65.
177.
Rashid in Ramamurthy ed., Kala Tara, 10–11.
178.
SCRRI, Education, vol. 2, 338, 600.
179.
LMA, ILEAEOU papers, ILEA/EOU/1/10, ILEA, “School Meals Seminar”, 16/1/85.
180.
N.R. Hemmington, M. Kipps and J. Thomson, The School Meals Service in the Inner London Education Authority (Guildford: University of Surrey, 1984), 85, 91.
181.
LMA, ILEAEOC minutes, ILEA/CL/MIN/10/1, 49, 167.
182.
House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, First Report from the Home Affairs Committee Session 1986–7: Bangladeshis in Britain, volume 1, (London: HMSO, 1986), 183.
183.
Tony Grogan, “Pickles Papers: Chapter 3 – the Honeyford Affair”, http://www.1in12.com/publications/archive/thepicklespapers/pickleschap3.html, accessed 23/12/16.
184.
BLSL, BHRU interviews, ACC C0055.
185.
Halstead, Education, Justice and Cultural Diversity, 46.
186.
The Times, 18/8/87.
187.
WYASB, YCCR papers, 49D79/1/3/2, YCCR, “…Education of Muslim Girls…”, 9/75.
188.
Philip Lewis, “Areas of Ethnic Negotiation: Cooperation and Conflict in Bradford” in Tariq Modood and Pnina Werbner eds., The Politics of Multiculturalism in the New Europe: Racism, Identity and Community (London: Zed Books, 1997), 137.
189.
Guardian, 10/12/73.
190.
Guardian, 3/1/74.
191.
Guardian, 13/9/65.
192.
Guardian, 24/3/64, 19/6/69, 16/10/71.
193.
Guardian, 23/9/67, 25/9/67.
194.
Guardian, 2/1/69.
195.
Guardian, 19/6/69; Hill and Isaacharoff, Community Action, 137; Rosie Wild, “‘Black Was the Colour of Our Fight’: the Transnational Roots of British Black Power” in Robin G. Kelley and Stephen Tuck eds., The Other Special Relationship: Race, Rights, and Riots in Britain and the United States (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 27–9.
196.
Guardian, 16/8/74.
197.
The Times, 8/1/74
198.
The Times, 4/2/74.
199.
The Times, 28/1/75.
200.
Pauline Dooley, “Muslim Private Schools” in Geoffrey Walford ed., Private Schooling: Tradition, Change and Diversity (London: Paul Chapman, 1991).
201.
Guardian, 7/9/83.
202.
Guardian, 18/6/83.
203.
Guardian, 2/8/92.
204.
The Times, 15/12/88
205.
Ibid. ; Guardian, 22/2/89, 16/3/89.
206.
Independent, 1/7/91, 28/8/91; Guardian, 9/7/91.
207.
Guardian, 2/8/92.
208.
Swann Report, 509.
209.
Gilles Kepel, Allah in the West (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), 120.
210.
Guardian, 5/11/91.
211.
Guardian, 24/4/83.
212.
Independent on Sunday, 15/7/90.
213.
Guardian, 7/9/83.
214.
PHM, LPRD papers, LP/RD/35/1, Labour Party, “Education in a Multicultural Society”, [1988].
215.
Guardian, 17/6/89.
216.
Independent, 4/5/89.
217.
Guardian, 13/9/87.
218.
Guardian, 13/4/83.
219.
Guardian, 11/4/86.
220.
Guardian, 16/3/89; Independent, 5/10/89.
221.
Sunday Times, 4/10/87.
222.
The Times, 18/5/89.
223.
Guardian, 16/3/89, 14/3/89.
224.
Guardian, 18/10/85.
225.
MPGB, White Paper, 28.
226.
Guardian, 21/2/89.
227.
The Times, 9/7/87.
228.
Guardian, 14/3/89.
229.
Guardian, 5/5/74.
230.
Clara Connolly, “Washing our Linen: One Year of Women Against Fundamentalism”, Feminist Review 37 (Spring, 1991), 72.
231.
Guardian, 13/4/83; Independent, 17/3/89.
232.
Swann Report, 503.
233.
Independent on Sunday, 15/7/90.
234.
Independent, 4/5/89.
235.
Independent, 17/7/89.
236.
MPGB, White Paper, 27.
237.
Guardian, 26/10/84.
238.
Guardian, 16/9/85.
239.
Guardian, 20/5/87.
240.
Guardian, 7/11/87.
241.
Saeeda Khanum, “Education and the Muslim Girl” in Gita Sahgal and Nira Yuval-Davis eds., Refusing Holy Orders: Women and Fundamentalism in Britain (London: Virago, 1992), 125.
242.
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243.
MPGB, White Paper, 7.
244.
Guardian, 31/1/89.
245.
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246.
Independent on Sunday, 5/11/91.
247.
Independent, 7/2/981.
248.
Guardian, 7/9/83, 24/4/83.
249.
Independent, 20/4/89.
250.
Independent, 1/7/91; Guardian, 9/7/91.
251.
Guardian, ibid.; Independent, 28/8/91.
252.
Independent, 20/4/89.
253.
The Times, 9/7/87.
254.
Sunday Times, 6/9/87; The Times, 24/4/90.
255.
Guardian, 28/5/87.
256.
Guardian, 16/7/89.
257.
Guardian, 24/4/83.
258.
Guardian 18/10/85.
259.
Guardian, 18/10/85, 9/11/85.
260.
Guardian, 13/9/87.
261.
Independent, 5/10/89.
262.
Guardian, 31/1/89, 4/5/89.
263.
Guardian, 9/5/89; The Times, 24/7/89.
264.
Guardian, 14/3/89.
265.
Independent, 14/7/89.
266.
The Times, 6/1/92.
267.
Ramamurthy, “Asian Youth Movements”, 39, 57; Kenan Malik, From Fatwa to Jihad: the Rushdie Affair and Its Legacy (London: Atlantic Books, 2009), xix.

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Fazakarley, J. (2017). Accommodation and Integration: Educating English Muslims, 1962–98. In: Muslim Communities in England 1962-90. Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53792-4_2

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Print ISBN: 978-3-319-53791-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-53792-4
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

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