Introduction

Fazakarley, Jed

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-53792-4_1

Jed Fazakarley⁵

Part of the book series: Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series ((CAL))

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Abstract

Fifteen years after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, non-Muslim Britons are more concerned than ever about the attitudes and behaviours of their Muslim co-nationals. In late 2015, around half of the non-Muslims in Britain regarded Islam as incompatible with Western values, and Muslims as harbouring disrespect for their fellow Britons. Polling before and after the atrocities in Paris in November 2015 suggest that this attack caused little in the way of worsening attitudes: it is possible that a critical mass of anti-Muslim sentiment has been approached.

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Notes

1.
YouGov, “After Paris: the Surprising Resilience of British Attitudes”, https://yougov.co.uk/news/2015/12/23/after-paris-surprising-resilience-british-attitude/, accessed 22/12/2016.
2.
The Times, 9/4/2016; Daily Mail, 10/4/2016; Daily Mirror, 10/4/2016; Guardian, 11/4/2016. For a partial exception, see Daily Telegraph, 11/4/2016.
3.
The Sun, 11/4/2016.
4.
ICM, “C4 / Juniper Survey of Muslims 2015”, https://www.icmunlimited.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Mulims-full-suite-data-plus-topline.pdf, accessed 22/12/2016, 259, 276, 299.
5.
Ibid. , 281.
6.
Ibid. , 10, 81.
7.
Trevor Phillips et al., Race and Faith: the Deafening Silence (London: Civitas, 2016), 1–3, 11, 56–9.
8.
David Goodhart, The British Dream: Successes and Failures of Post-war Immigration (London: Atlantic Books, 2014), 178–86.
9.
Legislation.gov.uk, “Race Relations Act 1976”, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1976/74/enacted, accessed 22/12/2016, section 71.
10.
Phillips et al., Race and Faith, 5.
11.
Ibid. , 69.
12.
The Sunday Times, 10/4/2016.
13.
Mark Clapson, “The American Contribution to the Urban Sociology of Race Relations in Britain from the 1940s to the Early 1970s”, Urban History 33: 2 (2006), 253–73.
14.
Jordanna Bailkin, The Afterlife of Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 27–33.
15.
Stuart Hall, Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the State and Law and Order (London: Macmillan, 1978); Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies ed., The Empire Strikes Back: Race and Racism in the 1970s (London: Routledge, 1992 [1982]); Paul Gilroy, There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack: the Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (London: Routledge, 1992 [2005]).
16.
Gideon Ben-Tovim et al., The Local Politics of Race (London: Macmillan, 1976); Wendy Ball and John Solomos eds., Race and Local Politics (Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1990); and Christian Joppke, Immigration and the State: the United States, Germany and Great Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
17.
Parveen Akhtar, British Muslim Politics: Examining Pakistani Biraderi Networks (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); and Asma Mustafa, Identity and Political Participation among Young British Muslims: Believing and Belonging (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). An older study in this vein is John Solomos and Les Back, Race, Politics and Social Change (London: Routledge, 1997).
18.
For example, Derek McGhee, The End of Multiculturalism? Terrorism, Integration and Human Rights (Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2008); and Steven Vertovec and Susanne Wessendorf eds., The Multiculturalism Backlash: European Discourses, Policies, and Practices (London: Routledge, 2010). For a critical note on the idea of a backlash in Britain, see Tariq Modood and Varun Uberoi, “Has Multiculturalism in Britain Retreated?” Soundings 53 (April, 2013), 129–42.
19.
Ian R.G. Spencer, British Immigration Policy since 1939: the Making of Multi-racial Britain (New York: Routledge, 1997); Kathleen Paul, Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizenship in the Postwar Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997); Randall Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration in Post-war Britain: the Institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
20.
Peter Fryer, Staying Power: the History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto, 1984); Colin Holmes, John Bull’s Island: Immigration and British Society, 1871–1971 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988); Panikos Panayi, An Immigration History of Britain: Multicultural Racism since 1800 (Harlow; New York: Pearson Longman, 2010).
21.
Dilip Hiro, Black British, White British: a History of Race Relations in Britain (London: Paladin, 1992).
22.
Humayun Ansari, ‘The Infidel Within’: Muslims since 1800 (London: Hurst & Co., 2004).
23.
Sarah Hackett, Foreigners, Minorities and Integration: the Muslim Immigrant Experience in Britain and Germany (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013).
24.
Philip Lewis, Islamic Britain: Religion, Politics, and Identity among British Muslims (London: IB Tauris, 1994), 2.
25.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 1.
26.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 2.
27.
Akhtar, British Muslim Politics, 78.
28.
Hackett, Foreigners, Minorities, and Integration, 10.
29.
Gilroy, There Ain’t no Black, xiv.
30.
Matthew Hilton, James McKay, Nicholas Crowson, and Jean-Francois Mouhot, The Politics of Expertise: How NGOs Shaped Modern Britain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 248.
31.
Pragna Patel, “Rana or Rambo? The Rise of Hindu Fundamentalism” in Rahila Gupta ed., From Homebreakers to Jailbreakers: Southall Black Sisters (London: Zed Books, 2003), 212; Anandi Ramamurthy, “The Politics of Britain’s Asian Youth Movements”, Race & Class 48: 2 (2006), 3.
32.
The National Archives (TNA), London, UK, National Assistance Board (AST) papers, 17/1445, Anthony McGowan, “Coloured People in Britain”, [1952], 6.
33.
E.J.B. Rose et al., Colour and Citizenship: a Report on British Race Relations (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 60–61.
34.
Hugh Tinker, Banyan Tree: Overseas Emigrants from India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), 184.
35.
Ibid. , 61.
36.
Quoted in ibid. , 25.
37.
Waqar I. U. Ahmed and Ziauddin Sardar, “Introduction” in Ahmed and Sardar eds., Muslims in Britain: Making Social and Political Space (Oxford; New York: Routledge, 2012), 2; Floya Anthias and Nira Yuval-Davis, Racialized Boundaries: Race, Nation, Gender, Colour and Class in the Anti-Racist Struggle (London: Routledge, 1992), 159. In education specifically, see Ali Rattansi, “Changing the Subject? Racism, Culture and Education” in Donald and Rattansi eds., Race, Culture and Difference, 11–48.
38.
Douglas A. Lorimer, Science, Race Relations and Resistance: Britain, 1870–1914 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 4, 10, 23, 37, 40–7.
39.
The Times, 26/1/68.
40.
Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration (SCRRI), Education (London: HMSO, 1973), vol. 2, 695.
41.
Sally Tomlinson, Race and Education: Policy and Politics in Britain (Maidenhead: Open University Press, 2008), 114–23.
42.
David Feldman, “Why the English Like Turbans: Multicultural Politics in British History” in David Feldman and Jon Lawrence eds., Structures and Transformations in Modern British History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 300–2.
43.
Bradford Telegraph & Argus, 21/5/65.
44.
Goodhart, British Dream, 181; See for instance, WYAS Bradford, YCCR papers, 49D79/2/3/5, Council of Citizens for Tower Hamlets, “A Survey of Information Provided for Non-English Speaking Immigrants in Their Own Languages by Local Authorities…”, 1966/7.
45.
Paul Foot, Immigration and Race in British Politics (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1965), 159; Rose, Colour and Citizenship, 206.
46.
A presentation of multiculturalism as national and state-created is made by Ben Pitcher, The Politics of Multiculturalism: Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 4, 23. It is presented as an entirely local phenomenon by Pnina Werbner, “The Translocation of Culture: ‘Community Cohesion’ and the Force of Multiculturalism in History”, The Sociological Review 53: 4 (Winter, 2005), 762.
47.
This is reflected in the House of Lords ruling in the case of Mandla vs. Dowel-Lee, concerning the admission of a turban-wearing Sikh boy to a school in Birmingham. On the armed forces, see Guardian, 10/8/97.
48.
Varun Uberoi and Tariq Modood, “Has Multiculturalism in Britain Retreated?” Soundings 53 (April, 2013), 130.
49.
Charles Taylor, “Interculturalism, Multiculturalism” in Varun Uberoi and Tariq Modood eds., Multiculturalism Rethought: Interpretations, Dilemmas and New Directions (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2015), 333.
50.
Commission for Racial Equality, Ethnic Minority Community Languages: a Statement (London: Commission for Racial Equality, 1982), 9.
51.
Feldman, “Why the English Like Turbans?”, 289–93.
52.
Bleich, Race Politics, 14; Adrian Favell, Philosophies of Integration: Immigration and the Idea of Citizenship in France and Britain (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), 41–4; Elizabeth Buettner, Europe After Empire: Decolonization, Society, and Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 327–48.
53.
Hackett, Foreigners, 153.
54.
On Canada, see Varun Uberoi, “Multiculturalism and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms”, Political Studies 57 (2009), 805–27. On Australia, see Mark Lopez, The Origins of Multiculturalism in Australian Politics, 1945–75 (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 2000), 372.
55.
As evidenced by the focus of discussions on the bill, The National Archives, Home Office (HO) papers, HO 376/68.
56.
Gavin Schaffer, “Legislating against Hatred: Meaning and Motive in Section Six of the Race Relations Act of 1965”, Twentieth Century British History 25: 2 (2014), 251–75.
57.
Rose ed., Colour and Citizenship, 529.
58.
West Yorkshire Archives Service Bradford, Bradford, UK, Yorkshire Committee for Community Relations (YCCR) papers, 49D79/2/3/5, NCCI, “Racial Equality in Employment: Report of a Conference Held at the Mayfair Hotel on 23–25 February 1967”.
59.
David John Smith, The Facts of Racial Disadvantage: a National Survey (London: Political and Economic Planning, 1976).
60.
Legislation.gov.uk, “Race Relations Act 1976”, part 1, section 1; part 7, accessed 22/12/2016.
61.
Fryer, Staying Power.
62.
Goodhart, British Dream, xxxviii.
63.
This figure is obtained by subtracting the figure of 319,800 for migration from the Dominions to the British metropole, as given in Robert Miles, “Nationality, Citizenship, and Migration to Britain”, Journal of Law and Society 16: 4 (Winter, 1989), 429, from the figure of “over 760,000” for migration to the Dominions from the British mainland in the same period, as given in Kathleen Paul, “The Politics of Citizenship in Post-War Britain”, Contemporary British History 6: 3 (Winter, 1992), 452.
64.
Zig Layton-Henry, The Politics of Immigration: Immigration, ‘Race’ and ‘Race Relations’ in Post-war Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 13.
65.
Contra Bailkin, Afterlife of Empire, 25.
66.
TNA, Colonial Office (CO) papers, CO/876/88, Clement Attlee to J.D. Murray, 7/48.
67.
Paul, Whitewashing Britain, 64–9.
68.
Rose, Colour and Citizenship, 20.
69.
Julius Isaac, British Post-war Migration (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953), 196.
70.
Miles, “Nationality, Citizenship…”, 426.
71.
Sheila Allen, New Minorities, Old Conflicts: Asian and West Indian Migrants in Britain (New York: Random House, 1971), 23.
72.
Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration, 57.
73.
Layton-Henry, Politics of Immigration, 13.
74.
TNA, HO papers, HO 376/126, [Draft working paper on immigration and race relations], 15.
75.
Layton-Henry, Politics of Immigration, 13.
76.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 27–46.
77.
Laura Tabili, “The Construction of Racial Difference in Twentieth-Century Britain: the Special Restriction (Coloured Alien Seamen) Act, 1920”, Journal of British Studies 33: 1 (January, 1994), 56, 70.
78.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 47–9.
79.
Katy Gardner and Abdus Shukur, “‘I’m Asian, I’m Bengali and I’m Living here’: the Changing Identity of British Bengalis” in Roger Ballard ed., Desh Pardesh: the South Asian Experience in Britain (London: Hurst and Company, 1994), 146.
80.
Pnina Werbner, The Migration Process: Capital, Gifts and Offerings among British Pakistanis (Oxford: Berg, 1990), 2.
81.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 152.
82.
Romain Garbaye, Getting into Local Power: the Politics of Ethnic Minorities in British and French Cities (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005), 100; Bradford Heritage Recording Unit, Here to Stay: Bradford’s South Asian Communities (Bradford: City of Bradford Council, 1994), 12, 79; David Garbin, “A Diasporic Sense of Place: Dynamics of Spatialization and Transnational Political Fields among Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain” in Michael Peter Smith and John Eade eds., Transnational Ties: Cities, Migrations and Identities (New Brunswick: Transaction, 2008), 149.
83.
Muhammad Anwar, The Myth of Return: Pakistanis in Britain (London: Heinemann, 1979), 22–3; Badr Dhaya, “The Nature of Pakistani Ethnicity in Industrial Cities in Britain” in Abner Cohen ed., Urban Ethnicity (London: Tavistock, 1974), 89; Roger Ballard “Introduction: the Emergence of Desh Pardesh” in Ballard ed., Desh Pardesh.
84.
WYASB, YCCR papers, 49D79/2/2/1, Dewsbury Town Council, “Preliminary Report to the Members of the Commonwealth Immigrants Sub-Committee”, 1966.
85.
Fazlul Alam, The Salience of Homeland: Societal Polarization within the Bangladeshi Population in Britain (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1988), 4; Nilufar Ahmed, “Tower Hamlets: Insulation in Isolation” in Tahir Abbas ed., Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure (London: Zed Books, 2005), 195.
86.
WYASB, Town Clerk’s (TC) papers, BBD 1/7/T9771, CIAC, “Fourth Report by the CIAC”, 10/65.
87.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 153–64.
88.
Tahir Abbas, “British South Asian Muslims: Before and After September 11” in Abbas ed., Muslim Britain, 4.
89.
Steven Vertovec, “Super-Diversity and Its Implications”, Ethnic and Racial Studies 30: 6 (2007), 1024–54.
90.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 178; Ballard, “Introduction”, 8.
91.
Ansari, Ibid. , 175.
92.
Avtar Brah and Sobia Shaw, Working Choices: South Asian Young Muslim Women and the Labour Market (London: Department of Employment, 1992), 13.
93.
Tariq Modood, Richard Berthoud, et al., Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage (London: Policy Studies Institute, 1997), 138.
94.
WYASB, YCCR papers, 49D79/2/3/5, Eric Butterworth, “Area Reports on Cities and Boroughs with Substantial Immigrant Populations: 1. Bradford”, 1/66; Ibid. , Halifax Council of Social Services, “Commonwealth Immigrants in Halifax”, 7/63.
95.
Ibid. , Town Clerk’s papers, BBD 1/7/T9644, City of Birmingham, “Answers Supplied by the City of Birmingham in Response to a Questionnaire Submitted by the AMC.”
96.
Ibid. , YCCR papers, 49D/79/2/2/9, YCCR Public Relations Advisory Panel, “Memorandum on the YCCR and the Yorkshire Immigrant Situation”, 2/6/67.
97.
Kathleen Hunter, History of Pakistanis in Britain (London, 1962), 42–5.
98.
Sarah Glynn, Class, Ethnicity and Religion in the Bengali East End: a Political History (Manchester: Manchester University Press), 17–8.
99.
Hassan Mahamdallie, “Muslim Working Class Struggles”, International Socialism 113 (January, 2007).
100.
Sarah Ladbury, “The Turkish Cypriots: Ethnic Relations in London and Cyprus” in James L. Watson ed., Between Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1977), 305.
101.
Parminder Bhachu, “The East African Sikh Diaspora: the British Case” in Steven Vertovec ed., Aspects of the South Asian Diaspora (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991), 65.
102.
Hackett, Foreigners, 27–57.
103.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 14.
104.
Smith, Facts of Racial Disadvantage, 53–4.
105.
Modern Records Centre (MRC), Coventry, UK, Trades Union Congress (TUC) papers, MSS.292D/805.9/3, Manchester Committee for Community Relations (MCCR), “Memorandum on Employment”, 7/73.
106.
Modood, Berthoud, et al., Ethnic Minorities in Britain, 86.
107.
University of Roehampton, London, UK, Prof. John Eade’s papers, Tower Hamlets Alternative Strategy Project / GLC, “Silk, Satin, Muslin, Rags: a Study of the Safety, Pay and Conditions in the Clothing Industry in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets”, [1980s].
108.
Sarah Salway, “Economic Activity among UK Bangladeshi and Pakistani Women in the 1990s: Evidence for Continuity or Change in the Family Resources Survey”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 33: 5 (July 2007), 825–47.
109.
Daniel Joly, Britannia’s Crescent: Making a Place for Muslims in British Society (Aldershot: Avebury, 1995), 71.
110.
Goodhart, British Dream, 129, 156.
111.
Francis Robinson, Varieties of South Asian Islam (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1988).
112.
Ibid. , 7; Tariq Modood, “British Asian Muslims and the Rushdie Affair” in Donald and Rattansi eds., Race, Culture and Difference, 267.
113.
Modood, Ibid. , 268.
114.
Robinson, South Asian Islam, 11–5.
115.
Ibid. , 6–7.
116.
Ron Geaves, Sectarian Influence within Islam in Britain (Leeds: University of Leeds, 1996), 169.
117.
Modood, “British Asian Muslims”, 267; Robinson, South Asian Islam, 8.
118.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 346; Pnina Werbner, “Manchester Pakistanis: Division and Unity” in Colin Clarke, Ceri Peach, and Steven Vertovec eds., South Asians Overseas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 340; Alison Shaw, A Pakistani Community in Britain (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), 150.
119.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 57.
120.
Seán McLoughlin, “The State, New Muslim Leaderships and Islam as a Resource for Public Engagement in Britain” in Jocelyn Cesari and Seán McLoughlin eds., European Muslims and the Secular State (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 60.
121.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 57, 81.
122.
Department of Communities and Local Government, The Pakistani Muslim Community in England (London: DCLG, 2009), 42; Seán McLoughlin, “Mosques and the Public Space: Conflict and Cooperation in Bradford”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 31: 6 (November, 2005), 1045–66.
123.
Jean Ellis, Meeting Community Needs (Coventry: Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1991), 70–2.
124.
Ellis, Ibid. , 54; John Eade and David Garbin, “Competing Visions of Identity and Space: Bangladeshi Muslims in Britain”, Contemporary South Asia 15: 2 (2006), 189.
125.
Geaves, Sectarian Influences, 199; Ansari, Infidel Within, 346, 349.
126.
Jorgen Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992), 47.
127.
Sarah Glynn, “Bengali Muslims: the New East End Radicals”, Ethnic and Racial Studies 25: 6 (2002), 971.
128.
Independent, 28/2/89.
129.
Ansari, Infidel Within, 349; Geaves, Sectarian Influences, 3; Lewis, Islamic Britain, 110–11.
130.
Ansari, Ibid. , 359.
131.
Lewis, Islamic Britain, 110.
132.
Ed Husain, The Islamist: Why I Joined Radical Islam in Britain, What I Saw Inside and Why I Left (London: Penguin, 2007); Eade and Garbin, “Competing Visions”, 188.
133.
London Metropolitan Archives (LMA), London, UK, Inner London Education Authority Equal Opportunities Committee (ILEAEOC) minutes, ILEA/CL/MIN/10/1, 43–4; MRC, TUC papers, MSS.292D/805.9/17, UKAIS, “Thirteenth Annual Conference”, 1983; Tower Hamlets Local History Library and Archives (THLHLA), London, UK, London Borough of Tower Hamlets (LBTH) papers, Policy Committee (PC) minutes, L/THL/A/32/2/10, “Tower Hamlets Inner Area Programme 1985/6 Community Chest”; Brian Jacobs, Black Politics and the Urban Crisis in Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 59.

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Fazakarley, J. (2017). Introduction. In: Muslim Communities in England 1962-90. Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53792-4_1

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