Abstract
In their time, the Stoics apparently enjoyed a reputation of being a particularly “manly” school of philosophy, in contrast to the allegedly effeminate Epicureanism. This chapter scrutinizes the Stoic rationalist ideal and its culmination in the figure of the sage from the point of view of gender. This chapter also analyzes the female exemplifications and idealizations found in Stoic sources.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
On the masculine connotation of the term virtus, see Gordon (2012): 114–115.
- 2.
One might also wonder whether the Stoics really thought that their rival schools had an equally necessary role in human society as the female gender. The human population would probably not do very well without women (at least if generation is considered one of the natural goals of the human species, as the Ancient thinkers commonly thought), but could it mutatis mutandis do without, say, the Epicureans? Given the important role of dialogue with opposing doctrines in the Hellenistic philosophical style, it would be plausible to claim that a philosophical school needs rivals in order to survive, because it needs opposing views against which it can clarify its own position. Yet no particular school (e.g., the Epicureans) is needed for this purpose, just as no particular woman is needed for the maintenance of the human kind (it is the female gender, in general, not one particular individual that is needed for this purpose).
- 3.
The Stoics often juxtapose inner and outer forms of slavery: even one who serves as a slave can have a free mind, and on the contrary many people are apparently free but have enslaved themselves with their wants, fears, and aspirations. It is clear that for the Stoics, the second form of slavery was worse because it was considered self-imposed. Cf. Sect. 10.2.
- 4.
On the Stoic description of the sage, cf., e.g., Seneca’s Letter 66.
- 5.
Thus, the Stoic position on happiness differs radically from Aristotle’s view of the good life as requiring certain outer conditions and a social standing. Hence, luck plays a considerable role in the Aristotelian view of happiness: if one happens to be born a female, a slave or poor, one is not in a position to attain the highest human happiness. The Stoic notion of happiness, in contrast, eliminates the role of luck altogether, and is certainly very distant from the view presented in Aristophanes ’ speech in Plato’s Symposium where life appears to be a constant search for the “right one.” Cf. Sect. 2.1 and 7.3.
- 6.
On the notion of style in feminist phenomenology, see Sara Heinämaa (2003).
- 7.
In the Stoic texts, masks are connected to the pleasing and fraudulent philosophies (such as, allegedly, Epicureanism), but also to the character of kinaidos, a “toy boy.” Origen, for example, states that male prostitutes “hired themselves out to those who desired them outside the city and wore masks,” and mentions that this was said by Chrysippus in his “Introduction to the Subject of Good and Evil.” In the same context, Origen also talks about “doubtful” men (i.e., eunuchs since their sex is doubtful) serving as prostitutes (Cels. 4.63). Cf. my discussion of kinaidos in. Sect. 5.2.
- 8.
This is a strong claim from a Stoic given that Socrates was often presented as the only possible real-life candidate to be considered a sage in the Stoic sense, and because there was a dispute within the school over whether a sage could ever lose his virtue (cf. DL VII: 127).
- 9.
Michel Foucault also points out that the way of life proposed by Hellenistic and Roman schools of philosophy was primarily intended to freeborn men (see “Introduction” to History of Sexuality, volume 2: The Use of Pleasure). In terms of the historical reality of the Ancient era, it is true that most of the people who had the opportunity to dedicate their life to a study of philosophy were men. It is another question, however, whether the philosophical arguments themselves include, or could include women, as well.
- 10.
For example, Epictetus recommends his students to lay down for themselves a character (kharaktêra) and a type (typos) for how they wish to behave in public. (Ench. 33).
- 11.
However, in his discussion on marriage Epictetus portrays the Cynic female philosopher Hipparchia in a favorable light (Disc. III.xxxii.76). Cf. Sect. 13.2.
- 12.
Julia Augusta is better known as Livia Drusilla (58 BCE–29 CE), the wife of Roman emperor Augustus. I will here only analyze Seneca’s philosophical arguments without entering the historical background of his cases-in-point.
- 13.
The same point could also be made of Seneca’s consolation letter to his mother Helvia.
References
Foucault, Michel. 1990. History of Sexuality, volume 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. Robert Hurely. New York: Vintage Books. (UP)
Gordon, Pamela. 2012. The Invention and Gendering of Epicurus. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Homiak, Marcia L. 2002. Feminism and Aristotle’s Rational Ideal. In Feminism and History of Philosophy, ed. Genevieve Lloyd, 80–102. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lloyd, Genevieve. 2002. LeDoeuff and History of Philosophy. In Feminism and History of Philosophy, ed. Genevieve Lloyd, 27–39. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Heinämaa, Sara. 2003. Toward a Phenomenology of Sexual Being. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield.
Nussbaum, Martha. 2002. The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus. In The Sleep of Reason—Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greek and Rome, ed. Martha Nussbaum and Juha Sihvola, 283–326. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Reydams-Schils, Gretchen. 2005. The Roman Stoic—Self, Responsibility, and Affection. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Appendix
Appendix
Cicero, Marcus Tullius
-
De Officiis
- Tusc.Disp. :
-
Tusculanae Disputationes
-
De officiis. M. Winterbottom (ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994.
-
Tusculanae Disputationes. M. Pohlenz (ed.). Leipzig: Teubner, 1918.
-
Tusculan Disputations. J.E. King (transl.). Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960.
Diogenes Laertius
-
Lives of Eminent Philosophers (DL)
-
Diogenis Laertii Vitae philosophorum. Miroslav Marcovich (ed.). Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana. Vol. 1. Stuttgart-Lipsia: Teubner, 1999–2002.
-
Lives of Eminent Philosophers. R.D. Hicks (transl.). Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1995.
Epictetus
-
Discourses (Disc.)
-
Encheiridion (Ench.)
-
Discourses and Selected Writings. Christopher Gill (ed.). Robin Hard (transl.). London: J.M. Dent & Vermont, Tuttle/Everyman, 1995.
-
Discourses. Books I–IV. W.A. Oldfather (transl.). Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2000.
Origen
- Cels. :
-
Contra Celsum
-
Contra Celsum. Henry Chadwick (transl.). Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
-
Die Griechischen Christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten Jahrhunderte (GCS), GCS 2–3, Origenes Werke: Contra Celsum. Paul Koetschau (ed.). 1. Aufl. 1899.
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus
-
Ad Helviam
-
Ad Marciam
- De Constantia Sapientis :
-
(On Firmness)
-
Epistulae
-
Opera Philosophica. Louis Delatte (ed.). Olm, Hildesheim, 1981.
-
Moral Essays. Vol. I. John W. Basore (transl.). Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1928.
-
Moral Essays. Vol. 2. John W. Basore (transl.). Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1932.
-
Epistles. Vol. I–VI. Richard M. Gummere (transl.). Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1917–1925.
-
Selected Philosophical Letters. Brad Inwood (transl.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Plato
- Rep. :
-
Republic
-
Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. 5–6, The Republic. Paul Shorey (transl.). London: Heinemann, 1969.
Plutarch
- Mulierum virtutes :
-
(Bravery of Women)
-
Moralia. Vol. 3. Frank Cole Babbitt (transl.). Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd., 1949–1976.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Grahn-Wilder, M. (2018). To Become Properly Manly—Gender, Happiness, and the Figure of the Sage. In: Gender and Sexuality in Stoic Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53694-1_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53694-1_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-53693-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-53694-1
eBook Packages: Religion and PhilosophyPhilosophy and Religion (R0)