Abstract
This chapter analyzes gender in the context of the Ancient science of physiognomy (physiognômonia). Physiognomy draws connections between physical features and characteristics of the soul, presuming that the inner character is displayed in the outer appearance among both animals and humans. This theory is interesting from the point of view of gender since it often labels different characteristics effeminate and masculine. There is evidence that at least certain Stoic thinkers sympathized with physiognomic ideas and applied them to their discussions on characteristics.
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Notes
- 1.
On the historical background of physiognomics, and the development of the discipline in Hippocrates’, pseudo-Aristotle’s, Polemo’s, and Peripatetic treatises, see Tamsyn S. Barton (1994: 100–109). Barton points out that physiognomics rely on the ideas that one can learn about humans from animals, and that the stars, the climate, and/or bodily humors influence people’s bodies and characters. It was also often assumed that climate caused certain proportions in the humors, which further caused certain dispositions (Barton 1994: 95–98). Cf. Marke Ahonen (2014: 623–624).
- 2.
In Malcolm Schofield’s reading, the mentioning of the sneezing young man signifies that Cleanthes “was able to spot a passive homosexual by his sneeze” (1991: 31). Although the term malakos can also signify “delicate,” “gentle,” and “effeminate,” I think Schofield is reading too much into this term. Besides, because of the enormous difference between Ancient conceptions of erotics and our present-day categories of sexual identity, I find it safer to avoid using the terms “homo/heterosexuality” in an Ancient context (cf. David Halperin 2002: 3). Possibly, however, despite his inexact choice of terms, Schofield was thinking about the role of the erômenos, the younger man in a pederastic relationship. Marke Ahonen reads this passage as suggesting that Cleanthes recognizes a kinaidos (the term is mentioned earlier in the same passage) (2014: 629). Cf. my discussion of kindaidos in Sect. 5.2.
- 3.
Maud W. Gleason reads this passage as suggesting that the young man should avoid giving signals of being sexually available (1995: 71).
- 4.
Marke Ahonen suggests that this passage could be read not as a physiognomic analysis of how a virtuous person looks like but a piece of advise for young people (2014: 629).
- 5.
Similarly, Seneca declares that he has deliberately accustomed himself to living without using perfume and bathing too often (Ep. CVIII 15).
- 6.
I also find evidence for this view in Cicero who claims that there is a connection between the climate and the state of the soul (Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods 2:42; Inwood & Gerson II.23). He also mentions that the food one eats has an influence on one’s mental acuity (ibid.: 43).
- 7.
Cf. Aristotle De An. I.4.
- 8.
In another passage, Seneca advises us to forgive a child because of his/her age and a woman because of her gender (feminam sexum) (III.24.3). Here, the context is different, however, and the notion of forgiving women because of their gender is one of many examples Seneca gives of situations in which one should not give in to anger even though there is a strong impulse to do so. This is one of many contexts where the notion of “gender” only implies women: Seneca does not ask us to forgive men because of their gender.
References
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Schofield, Malcolm. 1991. The Stoic Idea of the City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Appendix
Appendix
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De Anima
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De Fato
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Grahn-Wilder, M. (2018). Fiery and Cold Natures—Stoic Physiognomics of Gender. In: Gender and Sexuality in Stoic Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53694-1_6
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