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Brentanian Motives in Kazimierz Twardowski and His Students

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The Significance of the Lvov-Warsaw School in the European Culture

Part of the book series: Vienna Circle Institute Yearbook ((VCIY,volume 21))

Abstract

Alfred Tarski once wrote:

Almost all researchers who pursue the philosophy of exact sciences in Poland are indirect or direct disciples of Twardowski, although his own works can hardly be placed within this domain.

This article is a result of the project “The Significance of the Lvov-Warsaw School in European Culture” supported by the Foundation for Polish Science.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    A. Tarski, “Drei Briefe an Otto Neurath”, in: Grazer Philosophische Studien 1992, pp. 1–32. Eng. tr. (by J. Tarski, pp. 20–29), p. 20.

  2. 2.

    Surprisingly, many of Twardowski’s very close students propagated this opinion.

  3. 3.

    See H. Skolimowski, Polish Analytical Philosophy. A Survey and a Comparison with British Analytical Philosophy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1967.

  4. 4.

    See J. Woleński, “Intentionality, Semantics and Esse = Percipi”, in: Topoi 7, 1989, pp. 9–14.

  5. 5.

    See J.J. Jadacki, Polish Analytical Philosophy. Warsaw: Semper, 2009.

  6. 6.

    See A. Rojszczak, From the Act of Judging to the Sentence. The Problem of Truth Bearers from Bolzano to Tarski. Dordrecht: Springer Verlag 2005.

  7. 7.

    See A. Chrudzimski, D. Łukasiewicz (Eds.), Actions, Products and Things. Brentano and Polish Philosophy. Heustenstamm: Ontos Verlag 2006.

  8. 8.

    See On the Concept and the Object of Presentation, The Hague: Nijhoff 1977; Logico-Philosophical Investigations (in Russian). V. A. Smirnov (Ed.). Moskva: Rosspen 1992; On Actions, Products and Other Topics in Philosophy. J. Brandl, J. Woleński (Eds.). Amsterdam: Rodopi 1999.

  9. 9.

    See K. Twardowski, Zur Lehre vom Inhalt und Gegenstand der Vorstellungen. Eine psychologische Untersuchung. Wien: Hölder 1894. Repr. R. Haller (Ed.), Philosophia Verlag, München 1982. Eng. tr. (by R. Grossmann): On the Concept and the Object of Presentation, The Hague: Nijhoff 1977.

  10. 10.

    See J. Cavallin, Content and Object. Husserl, Twardowski and Psychologism. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1997.

    This is only a selection of writings of Twardowski published in English and other foreign languages. Without giving bibliographical data I mention (in alphabetical order) the following (the list is certainly incomplete) scholars working out of Poland responsible for more extended knowledge of Twardowski’s philosophy: Liliana Albertazzi (Trento), Arianna Betti (Amsterdam), Johannes Brandl (Salzburg), Francesco Coniglione (Catania), Reinhardt Grossmann (Madison), Rudolf Haller (Graz), Sandra Lapointe (Montreal), Wioletta Miśkiewicz (Paris; she created the Internet Archive of Polish Philosophy), Kevin Mulligan (Geneva), Jan Sebestik (Paris), Roberto Poli (Trento), Peter Simons (Dublin) and Barry Smith (Buffalo). In fact, every contemporary philosopher working on Bolzano, Brentano, Meinong or Husserl (in general, on Austrian philosophy) feels obliged to mention Twardowski and his philosophical ideas.

    See also: P. Simons, Philosophy and Logic in Central Europe from Bozalno to Tarski. Selected Essays. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1992; B. Smith, Austrian Philosophy. The Legacy of Franz Brentano. La Salle: Open Court, 1994 (a panorama of Brentano’s school) and collections: F. Coniglione, R. Poli, J. Woleński (Eds.), Polish Scientific Philosophy. The Lvov-Warsaw School. Rodopi 1993; L. Albertazzi, M. Libardi, R. Poli (Eds.), The School of Franz Brentano. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1996 (another survey of Brentanism).

  11. 11.

    See also essays in: A. Chrudzimski, D. Łukasiewicz (Eds.), Actions, Products and Things. Brentano and Polish Philosophy.

  12. 12.

    Jan Łukasiewicz visited Berlin in 1904 (he participated in Stumpf’s seminar in psychology) and Graz in 1909 (he participated in Meinong’s classes). Karl Stumpf and Alexius von Meinong were distinguished students of Brentano. Other contacts of philosophers from the Lvov-Warsaw School (other than Twardowski) with Brentanists were rather occasional. On the other hand, the philosophical views of Brentano and his students were well-known in Poland. It can be supported by references in writings of the Lvov-Warsaw School (about Marty’s reception in Polish philosophy see J. Woleński, “Anton Marty and the Lvov–Warsaw School”, in: K. Mulligan (Ed.), Mind, Meaning and Metaphysics. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1990, pp. 215–223). Twardowski himself exchanged several letters with Meinong and had close contacts with Alois Höfler and Hans Schmidkunz.

  13. 13.

    Although Husserl studied with Brentano, it is hard to think about him as a Brentanist.

  14. 14.

    See K. Twardowski, “Selbstdarstellung”, in: Grazer Philosophische Studeien 39, 1991, pp. 1–24. Eng. tr. (by A. Szylewicz), in: K. Twardowski, On Actions, Products and Other Topics in Philosophy. J. Brandl, J. Woleński (Eds.). Amsterdam: Rodopi 1999, pp. 17–31.

  15. 15.

    See K. Twardowski, Zur Lehre vom Inhalt und Gegenstand der Vorstellungen.

  16. 16.

    Izydora Dąmbska, my teacher and a very close student of Twardowski, told me that a picture of Brentano was always on Twardowski’s desk.

  17. 17.

    See J. Woleński, Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School, Dordrecht: Kluwer 1989.

  18. 18.

    D. Jacquette (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Brentano. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2004, p. 1.

  19. 19.

    Although it is true that Brentano was underestimated until the 1970s, the situation radically changed in the last quarter of the 20th century.

  20. 20.

    Polish names and philosophical affairs are, of course, mentioned in several chapters of The Cambridge Companion to Brentano, but the lack of any mention of the Lvov-Warsaw School on p. 1 is a historical error.

  21. 21.

    In order to keep references to a reasonable amount, I will extensively use secondary literature (The Cambridge Companion to Brentano is a particularly useful survey of Brentano’s philosophy). An additional reason is that, in most cases, I do not interpret the reported views.

  22. 22.

    One might be surprised that I omit reism. However, Kotarbiński, the main exponent of reism in the Lvov-Warsaw School, was not inspired by Brentano. Twardowski informed Kotarbiński about Brentano’s reism after Kotarbiński formulated his ontological doctrine. For further details see J. Woleński, “Reism in the Brentanian Tradition”, in: L. Albertazzi, M. Libardi, R. Poli (Eds.), The School of Franz Brentano.

  23. 23.

    See J. Woleński, Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School, Chapters II–III for the metaphilosophical views of Twardowski and other philosophers from the Lvov-Warsaw School.

  24. 24.

    See ibid., chapter XIV for criticism of this perspective of looking at Polish analytic philosophy.

  25. 25.

    See Woleński, Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School, Chapter IX on the achievements of Polish historians of logic.

  26. 26.

    See The Cambridge Companion to Brentano for an extensive account

  27. 27.

    F. Brentano, Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkt. Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot 1874, p. 88. Page-reference to English translation (by A. C. Rancurello, D. B. Terrell, L. L. McAllister): Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint. London: Routledge 1995.

  28. 28.

    Note, however, that some philosophers (I skip details) distinguish intentional acts and real acts even in the case of referring to daily items.

  29. 29.

    Incidentally, this analysis anticipated Carnap’s criticism of Heiddegger’s account of Nichts.

  30. 30.

    In fact, Kotarbiński developed his analysis of psychological sentences after learning about Brentano’s reism.

  31. 31.

    This is only a partial solution, because it can be reduced to the thesis that mental acts are existentially neutral. However, the intentionality thesis says more, namely that having mental acts, we always refer to something. A natural question arises “What do we refer to if the sentence “there is x which is P ″ is false?” Kotarbiński believed that we always refer to concrete objects or de se. The Leśniewski calculus of names (Leśniewski’s Ontology) can be interpreted in this spirit, but, to be sure, Leśniewski himself did not address this problem. Other Polish logicians were quite interested in particular theories of objects, for example, related to mathematics and logic.

  32. 32.

    For a more extensive treatment of this question see J. Woleński, “From Intentionality to Formal Semantics (From Twardowski to Tarski)”, in: Erkenntnis 56, 2002, pp. 9–27.

  33. 33.

    See J. Woleński, Logic and Philosophy in the Lvov-Warsaw School.

  34. 34.

    Also Husserl’s role in the rise of formal semantics should not be neglected in this respect (see J. Woleński, “Husserl and the Development of Formal Semantics”, in: Philosophia Scientiae l, 4, 1997, pp. 151–158). However, his idea of logic and language was strongly influenced by Brentano.

  35. 35.

    See K. Twardowski, “O czynnościach i wytworach. Kilka uwag z pogranicza psychologii, gramatyki i logiki” [On Actions and Products. Remarks from the Boderline of Psychology, Grammar and Logic], in: Księga Pamiątkowa ku uczczeniu 250-tej rocznicy założenia Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego przez króla Jana Kazimierza, v. II, Nakładem Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, Lvov 1912, pp. 1–33, Eng. Tr. (by A. Szylewicz), in: K. Twardowski, On Actions, Products and Other Topics in Philosophy. J. Brandl, J. Woleński (Eds.). Amsterdam: Rodopi 1999, pp. 103–132.

  36. 36.

    A similar distinction was introduced by C. Stumpf (C. Stumpf, “Ercheinungen und psychische Funktionen”. Abhandlungen der königlichen preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil-hist. Kl., 4 (a separate pamphlet), 1906), but more as an inessential conceptual device.

  37. 37.

    Semantic-grammatical differences are much stronger in Polish than in English.

  38. 38.

    I do not judge whether this account is correct or whether it was consequently represented in the Lvov-Warsaw School (similar qualifications apply to other views of Twardowski and his students). For instance, some statements of Łukasiewicz and Ajdukiewicz are Platonic, at least in their verbal form.

  39. 39.

    A. Tarski, Pojęcie prawdy w językach nauk dedukcyjnych [The Concept of Truth in the Languages of Deductive Sciences]. Warsaw: Towarzystwo Naukowe Warszawskie [Warsaw Scientific Society], 1933, p. 174. Page-reference to English translation (by J. H. Woodger): The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages, in Tarski 1956, pp. 152–278.

  40. 40.

    See P. Simons, J. Woleński, “De Veritate: Austro-Polish Contributions to The Theory of Truth from Brentano to Tarski”, in: K. Szaniawski (Ed.), The Vienna Circle and the Lvov-Warsaw School. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1989, pp. 391–442; J. Woleński, “Theories of Truth in Austrian Philosophy”, in: Reports on Philosophy 18, 1998, pp. 13–49. Reprinted in J. Woleński, Essays in the History of Logic and Logical Philosophy. Cracov: Jagiellonian University Press 1999, pp. 150–175.

  41. 41.

    See a collection of Brentano’s papers on truth – F. Brentano, Wahrheit und Evidenz, Leipzig: Meiner, 1930 (English translation as Turth and Evidence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul). See also: J. Srzednicki, Franz Brentano’s Analysis of Truth. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1965; J. Woleński, “Brentano’s Criticism of the Correspondence Theory of Truth and Tarski’s Semantic Theory”, in: Topoi 6, 1989, pp. 105–110; Ch. Parsons, “Brentano on Judgment and Truth”, in: D. Jacquette (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Brentano. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 168–196.

  42. 42.

    My remarks about Brentano’s aletheiology are very sketchy.

  43. 43.

    K. Twardowski, “O tzw. prawdach względnych” [On So-Called Relative Truths], in: Księga Pamiątkowa Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego ku uczczeniu pięćsetnej rocznicy Fundacji Jagiellońskiej Uniwersytetu Krakowskiego, Nakładem Senatu Uniwersytetu Lwowskiego, Lvov 1900, pp. 1–25. Eng. tr. (by A. Szylewicz) in: Eng. tr. (by A. Szylewicz) in: K. Twardowski, On Actions, Products and Other Topics in Philosophy. J. Brandl, J. Woleński (Eds.). Amsterdam: Rodopi 1999, pp. 147–169.

  44. 44.

    K. Twardowski, “Wykłady z teorii poznania w r. a. 1924–25” [Theory of Knowledge. A Course of 1924–25], in: Archiwum Historii Filozofii i Myśli Społecznej 22, 1977, pp. 241–249. Eng. tr. (by A. Szylewicz) in: K. Twardowski, On Actions, Products and Other Topics in Philosophy. J. Brandl, J. Woleński (Eds.). Amsterdam: Rodopi 1999, pp. 181–239.

  45. 45.

    “Wykłady z teorii poznania w r. a. 1924–25” [Theory of Knowledge. A Course of 1924–25] are based on lecture notes written in 1924. On the other hand, Twardowski delivered similar courses earlier. Hence, his epistemological views were well-known by all generations of his students. In his lectures, Twardowski criticized coherentism and utilitarianism (pragmatism) in the theory of truth.

  46. 46.

    “Wykłady z teorii poznania w r. a. 1924–25” [Theory of Knowledge. A Course of 1924–25], pp. 193–194. Page-reference to Eng. translation.

  47. 47.

    One terminological question should be explained. In order to avoid psychologism, logicians from the Lvov-Warsaw School avoided speaking about judgements. They (I omit some differences in the views of particular Polish philosophers) used the term “proposition” as referring to meanings of not-elliptical sentences. Hence, sentences were considered as bearers of truth.

  48. 48.

    Edward Poznański and Aleksander Wundheiler were the only exceptions in the logical branch. They defended the consensus theory of truth.

  49. 49.

    Kotarbiński shared a view similar to that of Łukasiewicz, but he agreed with Leśniewski later. For Kotarbiński’s view on truth see J. Woleński, “Kotarbiński, Many-Valued Logic and Truth”, in: J. Woleński (Ed.), Kotarbiński: Logic, Semantics and Ontology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers 1990, pp. 190–197. Reprinted in: J. Woleński, Essays in the History of Logic and Logical Philosophy. Cracov: Jagiellonian University Press 1999, pp. 115–120.

  50. 50.

    See M. Kokoszyńska, “Über den absoluten Wahrheitsbegriff und einige andere semantische Begriffe”, Erkenntnis 6, 1936, pp. 143–165. Reprinted in Logischer Rationalismus. Philosophische Schriften der Lemberger-Warschauer Schule. Herausgeben von D. Pearce und J. Woleński. Frankfurt/Main: Athenäum 1988, pp. 276–292.

  51. 51.

    See P. Simons, Philosophy and Logic in Central Europe from Bolzano to Tarski, essay 9 for other possible affinities between Łukasiewicz and Meinong.

  52. 52.

    T. Kotarbiński, Elementy teorii poznania, logiki formalnej i metodologii nauk [Elements of Theory of Knowledge, Formal Logic and the Methodology of Science]. Lvov: Ossolineum 1929. Eng. tr (by O. Wojtasiewicz) as Gnosiology. The Scientific Approach to the Theory of Knowledge. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1966; p. 106/107. Page-reference is to English edition.

  53. 53.

    A. Tarski, “The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundations of Semantics”, in: Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 4, 1944, pp. 341–346. Reprinted in A. Tarski, Collected Papers. Vol. II. Basel: Birkhäuser 1934–1935, pp. 662–699. Page-reference to Tarski 1986. Note, however, that Tarski was less critical about the adaequatio formula in his Pojęcie prawdy w językach nauk dedukcyjnych [The Concept of Truth in the Languages of Deductive Sciences]. Warsaw: Towarzystwo Naukowe Warszawskie [Warsaw Scientific Society], 1933. Eng. Tr (by J. H. Woodger) as The Concept of Truth in Formalized Languages, in Tarski 1956, pp. 152–278 (see p. 153).

  54. 54.

    See P. Simons, “Judging Correctly. Brentano and the Reform of Elementary Logic”, in: D. Jacquette (Ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Brentano. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 45–65.

  55. 55.

    See P. Simons, Philosophy and Logic in Central Europe from Bolzano to Tarski, essay 10 on Brentanian basis for Leśniewski’s logic.

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Correspondence to Jan Woleński .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Philosophy, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland

    Anna Brożek

  2. Institute Vienna Circle, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

    Friedrich Stadler

  3. University of Information, Technology and Management, Rzeszów, Poland

    Jan Woleński

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Woleński, J. (2017). Brentanian Motives in Kazimierz Twardowski and His Students. In: Brożek, A., Stadler, F., Woleński, J. (eds) The Significance of the Lvov-Warsaw School in the European Culture. Vienna Circle Institute Yearbook, vol 21. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52869-4_4

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