The Agrochemical Industry

Abstract

Agrochemical industry is a very vast field and deals with production and distribution of pesticides and fertilizers to increase the crop yields. Pesticides also find utility for animal and public health, as disinfectant, for home cares etc. This chapter is an attempt to provide a glance into role of pesticides, their classification based on: application, mode of entry, mode of action, chemical class and toxicity. It briefly touches upon the chemistry of pesticides. It also describes characteristics of main types of pesticide formulations and role of adjuvants in the formulation. There is a small note on the challenges faced by Agrochemical Industry and the future trends in this field.

Fertilizers and fundamental nutrients are arbitrarily excluded from discussion in this chapter. A special mention is provided in the chapter on the products introduced in the market in recent past and becoming off patent post 2015 to help the readers to identify and develop generic active ingredients to meet the global demand for food, feed, fibre and energy as well as to maintain general hygiene of homes.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Products Launched After 2000 and Becoming Off Patent Post 2015

Sr No	a.i. common name and structure	Chemical class	Mode of action/biochemistry	Launch year
Insecticides
1	Bistrifluron	Benzoylurea	Chitin synthesis inhibitor Uses: For the control of aphids, whiteflies and other lepidopterous insects	2006
2	Chlorantraniliprole	Anthranilic diamide	Exhibits larvicidal activity post ingestion by targeting and disrupting the Ca2+ balance causing muscle contraction Uses: Broad-spectrum control of caterpillars in field, vegetable crops and vine	2007
3	Cyantraniliprole	Diamide	Exhibits larvicidal activity as an orally ingested toxicant by targeting and disrupting the Ca2+ balance, second-generation ryanodine receptor Uses: Foliar and systemic activity on a wide range of crops that is effective against many key chewing and sucking pests including whitefly, thrips, aphids and fruit flies	2008
4	Cyenopyrafen	Pyrazole	Mitochondrial complex II electron transport inhibitor Uses: An acaricide for fruit, vegetables and tea	2006
5	Cyflumetofen	Bridged diphenyl	Highly selective and causes loss of motor coordination leading to paralysis and death Uses: Novel acaricide active against phytophagous mites at all development stages	2004
6	Flubendiamide	Benzene-dicarboxamide	Exhibits larvicidal activity as an orally ingested toxicant by targeting and disrupting the Ca2+ balance Uses: Lepidopteran insecticide for use in wide range of annual and perennial crops	2006
7	Flufiprole	Phenylpyrazole	It blocks the passage of chlorine ions by interacting with gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-gated chloride channels on nerve cell membranes Uses: To control brown plant hopper or leafy beetle in rice	2009
8	Gamma-cyhalothrin	Pyrethroid	Non-systemic acting by contact and/or ingestion. Sodium channel modulator Uses: Broad-spectrum control of insect pests in a wide range of crops.	2003
9	Imicyafos	Phosphonothioate	High contact activity with fast diffusion in soil Uses: A novel nematicide that is effective against knot root, root lesions, cyst nematodes	2006
10	Iodomethane	Alkyl iodide	Fumigant action thought to be via the nucleophilic displacement (SN2) reaction in various amino acids and peptides within target organisms Uses: To control insects, plant parasitic nematodes, soilborne pathogens and weed seeds	2004
11	Metaflumizone	Semicarbazone	Broad-spectrum, attacks insect nervous system causing paralysis Uses: Active against key insect pests including Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera and Diptera. Also have some veterinary applications	2008
12	Metofluthrin	Pyrethroid ester	Vapour active, knockdown action. Sodium channel modulator Uses: As a mosquito repellent impregnated on to paper strips and positioned in outdoor areas such as gardens and campsites	2004
13	Noviflumuron	Benzoylurea	A chitin synthesis inhibitor Uses: Insect growth regulator to control termites, ants, cockroaches, fleas and flies in a wide range of pest management solutions	2003
14	Pyridalyl	Pyridalyl	Novel insecticide. Mode of action is unknown or uncertain Uses: Effective against range of lepidopterous and thysanopterous insects on cotton and vegetable crops	2002
15	Pyrifluquinazon	Quinazinalone	Modifies insect behaviour, rapidly stopping feeding such that insects starve to death Uses: To control aphids, thrips, mealybugs and scale on vegetables and ornamentals	2006
16	Pyriprole	Phenylpyrazole	Causes uncontrolled activity of parasites nervous system and hence its death, broad spectrum, non-systemic Uses: Insecticide, ectoparasiticide and acaricide for the treatment for fleas and ticks on animals	2004
17	Spirodiclofen	Tetronic acid	Selective, non-systemic, disrupts mite development Uses: Foliar applied acaricide active against a range of mites on fruit and nut	2003
18	Spiromesifen	Tetronic acid	Non-systemic. Inhibitors of lipid synthesis Uses: Against whiteflies and two-spotted spider mite	2002
19	Spirotetramet	Tetramic acid	Stomach acting, broad spectrum, systemic insecticide that is rapidly translocated, inhibition of lipogenesis in treated insects Uses: For the control of a wide range of sucking insects including aphids, whiteflies and psyllids on crops such as fruit, vegetables and potatoes	2007
20	Sulfoxaflor	Sulfilimine	Mode of action: Not fully understood Uses: For the control of aphids in cotton and peaches	2007
21	Tetramethylfluthrin	Pyrethroid ester	Mode of action not fully understood Uses: A novel insecticide	2008
Herbicides
1	Aminocyclopyrachlor	Unclassified	Readily absorbed by plant leaves and roots. Translocates in both the xylem and phloem and is thought to accumulate in the meristematic areas of the plant Uses: Noncrop and invasive plant market with other potential uses on turf	2008
2	Aminopyralid	Pyridine carboxylic acid	Systemic, post-emergent action, absorbed by leaves and roots Uses: For the long-term control of noxious and invasive broadleaf weeds in grassland	2005
3	Bencarbazone	Triazalone	Protox inhibitor, absorbed by roots and foliage and translocated Uses: Post-emergent control of broadleaf weeds in cereals, sugar cane and corn	2005
4	Cyprosulfamide	Unclassified	A plant growth regulator used as a safener to accelerate the herbicide detoxification process often used to provide additional crop safety when using thiencarbazone-methyl	2008
5	Difunon	Phenylfuranone	Selective contact and residual action. Bleaching: inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis Uses: Post emergence herbicide active against grassy weeds	2005
6	Flucetosulfuron	Sulfonylurea	Broad spectrum, absorbed by roots, stem and leaves, acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor Uses: Post-emergent herbicide for the control of broadleaf weeds, some grass weeds and sedges particularly Echinochloa sp. in rice and some cereal crops	2003
7	Foramsulfuron	Pyrimidinyl sulfonylurea	Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor stunting growth and causing death Uses: Post-emergent herbicide for grass and broadleaf weed control	2001
8	Flufenpyr-ethyl	Pyridazinone	Protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitor Uses: On potatoes, maize, soya and wheat	2003
9	Indaziflam	Fluoroalkyltriazine	Non-selective, broad-spectrum activity Uses: Broad spectrum of weeds, including species which are difficult to eliminate such as annual bluegrass, goosegrass, ryegrass and goosefoot	2008
10	Ipfencarbazone	Triazolone anilide	Mode of action: Not clearly understood Uses: Potential control of weeds such as watergrass in rice	2008
11	Metamifop	Aryloxyphenoxy propionate	Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase.) inhibitor, causes chlorosis leading to growth retardation Uses: Post-emergent herbicide for the control of a wide range of annual grass weeds in cereal crops and rice	2002
12	Methiozolin	Oxazole	Mode of action: Not fully understood Uses: A novel herbicide for turf	2008
13	Orthosulfamuron	Pyrimidinyl sulfonylurea	Systemic, systemic absorbed by foliage and roots and translocated, acetohydroxy acid synthase Uses: Pre- and post-emergent rice herbicide active against sedges, grasses and some broadleaf weeds	2007
14	Penoxsulam	Triazolopyrimidine sulfonamide	Broad spectrum, absorbed mainly by leaves and, to lesser extent, roots and translocated, exhibits knockdown and residual control Uses: On rice crops for the control of sedges, broad-leaved weeds, aquatic plants and certain grasses	2004
15	Pinoxaden	Phenyl pyrazoline	Systemic. acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) inhibitor, inhibiting fatty acid synthesis Uses: For post-emergent control of annual grass weeds in cereal crops particularly wheat	2006
16	Propyrisulfuron	Pyrimidinyl sulfonylurea	Mode of action: Not fully understood Uses: New herbicide for use on paddy rice	2008
17	Pyrasulfotole	Pyrazolone	Selective, acts by the inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis specifically inhibits the enzyme 4-hydroxyphenyl-pyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) Uses: For post-emergent control of various broadleaf weeds in cereals, used with the safener mefenpyr-diethyl	2004
18	Pyrimisulfan	Sulfonanilide	Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibition Uses: For the control of perennial weeds predominately in rice crops	2004
19	Pyroxasulfone	Pyrazole	Sulfonylioxazoline acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor, mode of action not fully understood. Good residual action Uses: Pre-emergent grass and broadleaf weed herbicide which is selective in wheat and corn	2005
20	Pyroxsulam	Triazolopyrimidine sulfonamide	Broad spectrum having both foliar and soil activity, translocates and inhibits acetolactate synthase (ALS) Uses: Control of annual grass and broadleaf weeds in winter wheat	2007
21	Saflufenacil	Uracil/amide	Select, contact and residual action, PPO inhibitor Uses: Solo or mixed with glyphosate for rapid control of many dicotyledonous weeds by pre-plant and pre-emergent applications to a wide range of food crops	2009
22	Tefuryltrione	Benzoylcyclohexanedione	Acts on 4-hydroxyphenyl pyruvic dioxygenase, inhibiting pigment synthesis Uses: In paddy fields effective against sulfonylurea-tolerant weeds as well as annual and perennial weeds belonging to the Cyperus microiria Steud family	2009
23	Tembotrione	Triketone	Uses: Post-emergent broad-spectrum herbicide for the control of grassy and broadleaf weeds in corn and other crops	2007
24	Thiencarbazone-methyl	Triazolone	Acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor, systemic, absorbed by roots and leaves, contact and residual action Uses: In mixtures with isoxaflutole for pre-emergent control of grassy and broadleaf weeds in corn, soya and other crops	2008
25	Topramezone	Benzoylpyrazole	Systemic, highly selective, rapidly absorbed and translocated Uses: Post-emergent herbicide for broadleaf weeds and grasses mainly in corn	2006
Fungicides
1	Ametoctradin	Triazolopyrimidine	Selective, preventive, mitochondrial respiration inhibitor Uses: For the control of late blight and downy mildew on potatoes and other crops including vines	2009
2	Amisulbrom	Sulfonamide	Qil (quinone inside inhibitor) action. Respiration inhibitor Uses: On potatoes to control late blight (Phytophthora infestans) and downy mildew [Plasmopara viticola)	2008
3	Benalaxyl-M	Phenylamide	A systemic fungicide with protective, curative and eradication action Uses: To control Oomycetes particularly late blights on potatoes and tomatoes and downy mildew on a variety of crops	2003
4	Benthiavalicarb	Carbamate	Protective and curative action with residual effects, inhibits phospholipid biosynthesis Uses: Against Oomycetes fungal plant pathogens	2003
5	Bixafen	Pyrazole	Mode of action: Not known Uses: Cereals for key disease control including strobilurin-resistant Septoria in cereals	2006
6	Coumethoxystrobin	Strobilurin	Respiration inhibitor (QoL fungicide) Uses: On cereals	2010
7	Cyflufenamid	Amide	Preventative and curative activity, acts by inhibiting the infection process Uses: For the control of powdery mildew in cereals and other crops	2002
8	Fenpyrazamine	Pyrazole	Unclear but thought to inhibit germ tube and mycelium elongation Uses: Control Botrytis infections or fruit and vegetables	2012
9	Fluopicolide	Benzamide	Protectant Uses: For the control of a range of diseases including downy mildew and blight	2006
10	Fluopyram	Benzamide, pyramide	Mode of action: Not known Uses: For foliar application and as a seed treatment to control Botrytis, powdery mildew and other diseases	2008
11	Flutianil	Thiazolidine	Contact action—both fungitoxic and fungistatic Uses: For a range of horticultural crops including grapevines and ornamentals	2008
12	Fluxapyroxad	Pyrazole	Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor. Has preventative and curative properties and works by preventing spore germination and infection development Uses: Controls a number of cereal fungal pathogens including those belonging to the Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Zygomycetes families	2011
13	Fluoxastrobin	Strobilurin	Systemic with protectant and curative properties Uses: For disease control of potatoes and a wide range of vegetables	2002
14	Iminoctadine triacetate	Guanidine	Protectant. Mode of action: Not known Uses: On fruit, trees and lawns to control a variety of pathogens including Alternaria and Gloeodes	2004
15	Isopyrazam	Benonorbene	Protectant, foliar absorption, translocates, inhibits respiration and spore germination and germ-tube elongation Uses: For the control of Septoria tritici, rusts and other diseases in cereals and some other crops	2008
16	Isotianil	Thiazole	Mode of action: Not known Uses: To control rice blast	2007
17	Mandipropamid	Mandelamide	Inhibits spore germination with preventative action Uses: To control Oomycete pathogens such as Plasmopara viticola on grapes and Phytophthora infestans on potatoes and tomatoes	2005
18	Meptyldinocap	Dinitrophenol	Protectant, curative and eradicant activity by inhibiting spore germination Uses: Active against powdery mildew mainly on grapes, cucurbits and strawberries	2007
19	Metrafenone	Benzophenone	Protective and curative action. Interferes with hyphal morphogenesis Uses: To control eyespot and powdery mildew on cereals	2006
20	Orysastrobin	Strobilurin	Systemic, broad spectrum with protective and curative properties. Interferes with the respiration process Uses: Rice fungicide highly effective against Magnaporthe oryzae, Pyricularia oryzae, Thanatephorus cucumeris and Rhizoctonia solani	2006
21	Penflufen	Pyrazole	Succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor Uses: Seed treatment of numerous crops including potatoes	2012
22	Penthiopyrad	Carboxamide	Broad spectrum, inhibits mitochondrial functions Uses: To control rust and Rhizoctonia diseases and also show activity against grey mould, powdery mildew and apple scab	2003
23	Proquinazid	Quinazolinone	Preventative and curative activity Uses: To control powdery mildew in a range of crops including cereals and grapes	2005
24	Prothioconazole	Triazolinthione	Systemic with protective, curative and eradicative action. Long-lasting activity Uses: Both as a seed treatment and foliar spray to treat a variety of diseases in cereals	2004
25	Pyraclostrobin	Strobilurin	Protective and curative action. Respiration inhibitor (QoL fungicide) Uses: To control major plant pathogens including Septoria tritici, Puccinia spp. and Pyrenophora teres	2000
26	Pyraoxystrobin	Strobilurin	Respiration inhibitor (QoL fungicide) Uses: Broad-spectrum fungicide used to control a variety of diseases on rice, vegetables and teas	2009
27	Pyriofenone	Aryl phenyl ketone	Inhibits the formation of appressoria and the subsequent penetration of the hyphae in the plant cells Uses: A novel fungicide for the control of powdery mildew on cereals and other mildews on vines	2011
28	Sedaxane	Pyrazole anilide (isomer mix)	Broad spectrum Uses: For the control of pathogens such as Ascomycetes and Oomycetes species in crops such as fruit and wheat	2008
29	Valifenalate	Acylamino acid	Cellulose synthesis inhibitor Uses: A new anti-peronosporic fungicide that controls downy mildew, crown rot, late blight various crops, including grapes, potatoes and tomatoes	2008

Appendix 2: Regulatory Authorities and Legislation of Some Countries

Country	Regulatory authority	Legislation	Website
Australia	Australian Pesticide and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA)	Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (Administration) Act 1992 and the Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Code Act 1994	http://apvma.gov.au/node/1063
Brazil	ANVISA: Ministry of Health; IBAMA: Ministry of Environment; MAPA: Ministry of Agriculture	Pesticide’s Federal Law 7802/89	www.anvisa.gov.br
		Decree 4074 from January 2002	www.ibama.gov.br
			http://www.agricultura.gov.br
Canada	Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA)	Pest Control Products Act	http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cps-spc/pest/index-eng.php
China	Institute for the Control of Agrochemicals of the Ministry of Agriculture (ICAMA)	Regulation on Pesticide Administration (RPA) 1997 amended 2009	www.chinapesticide.gov.cn/en/en.asp
India	Central Insecticide Board and Registration Committee (CIB and RC)	Insecticide Act 1968 and Rules 1971	www.cibrc.nic.in
Japan	Agricultural Chemicals Inspection Station (ACIS)	Agricultural Chemicals Regulation Law No. 82, 1948, amended on 30 March 2007	www.acis.famic.go.jp/eng/shinsei/index.htm
	Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF)
Mexico	Federal Commission for the Protection Against Sanitary Risks (COFEPRIS)	Reglamento en Materia de Registros, Autorizaciones de Importación y Exporta ción y Certificados de Exportación de Plaguicidas, Nutrientes Vegetales y Sustancias y Materiales Tóxicos o Peligrosos	http://www.cofepris.gob.mx/Paginas/Idiomas/Ingles.aspx
The European Union	Each of the member states has own regulatory body	Regulation EC 1107/2009	http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/pesticides/legislation/index_en.htm
	Assessment is conducted by Rapporteur Member State (RMS), Co-RMS and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
The USA	Environment Protection Agency (EPA)	Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)	http://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration