Writing Russianess, Greatness, Europe, and the Balkans in the Late Soviet Discourse in 1980s

Samokhvalov, Vsevolod

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52078-0_4

Writing Russianess, Greatness, Europe, and the Balkans in the Late Soviet Discourse in 1980s

Vsevolod Samokhvalov²

Chapter
First Online: 11 April 2017

485 Accesses

Abstract

In this chapter I will consider whether the discourses that prevailed in the 1950s–1960s were still present in the 1980s when Soviet society went through significant economic change and political liberalisation. To find out what kind of change the Soviet mind-set underwent during the period of the 1980s and how, in the view of these changes, the late Soviet elites made sense of new developments in Europe, the Balkans, and the Black Sea region, I analyse historical textbooks, historical fiction, and the most popular newspaper—Izvestia. The analysis shows that in the late 1980s Russia’s great power identity was tightly linked to the recognition by Europe. The role of the Balkans and the Black Sea region became even more prominent for the new generation of Russian elite.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter: USD 29.95; Price excludes VAT (USA)

eBook: USD 84.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Softcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Hardcover Book: USD 109.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Notes

1.
These textbooks focus on the history of Russia, in particular, on all the states that existed in this territory over the last three millennia.
2.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub, Istoria SSSR: Uchebnik dlia 7-ogo Klassa (History of the USSR, textbook for the 7th grade of secondary school), (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1984); M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub, Istoria SSSR: Uchebnoe Posobie dlia 8-ogo Klassa (History of the USSR, textbook for the 8th grade), (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1968); Y. Kukushkin (ed.), Istoria SSSR: Uchebnik dlia 9-ogo klassa (History of the USSR, textbook for the 9th grade), (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1986); Y. Kukushkin, Istoria SSSR: Uchebnik dlia 10-ogo klassa sredney shkoly (History of the USSR, textbook for the 10th grade of secondary school), 3rd ed. (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1988); Y.Kukushkin (1988).
3.
I. Krivoguz, Novaya Istoria: 1871–1918: Uchebnik dlia 10-ogo klassa sredney shkoly (The Modern History: 1871–1918, Textbook for the 10th grade of secondary school), 2nd ed. (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1989).
4.
In fact, these textbooks were written by less senior academics A. Manusevich, V. Orlov, and S. Stetskevich, but it was the name of V. Furaev who featured on the first page of the textbook. V. Furaev (ed.), Noveyshaia Istoria, 1917–1939: Uchebnik dlia 9-ogo klassa sredney shkoly (The Contemporary History, 1917–1939: Textbook for the 9th grade of the secondary school), (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1987); V. Furaev (ed.), Noveyshaia Istoria, 1939–1988: Uchebnik dlia 11-ogo klassa sredney shkoly (The Contemporary History, 1939–1988: Textbook for the 11th grade of the secondary school), (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, 1989).
5.
N. Karamzin, Istoria Gosudarstva Rossiyskogo (History of the Russian State), (Moscow: Nauka, in five volumes, 1989–1993).
6.
A. Olcatt, “Glasnost’ and Soviet Culture”, in F. Maurice and I. Heyward (eds.), Soviet Society Under Gorbachev: Current Trends and the Prospects for Reform (New York: Sharpe, 1987), 109; W. Laqueur, Soviet Realities: Culture and Politics from Stalin to Gorbachev (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1990), 41. It should be noted that some of the Russian critics, e.g. Nikolai Gublinsky, stressed that some authors, like V. Pikul, “deal with historical themes, in order to substantiate their own ideas, ideas which have nothing whatsoever to do with history or, for that matter, with literature”, quoted in W. Korey, Russian Antisemitism, Pamyat, and the Demonology of Zionism (Chur: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1995), 154.
7.
Quoted in Y. Afanasiev, “We are only beginners”, Sovietskaya Kultura, 21 March 1987.
8.
V. Pikul, Chest Imeyu…(Moscow: AST, Veche, 2007), available at: http://www.litres.ru/valentin-pikul/chest-imeu/.
9.
Although V. Pikul narrates the story in the name of his hero (using the first person), stressing that the memoirs of the hero are anonymous, because he is an intelligence officer of the Russian/Soviet General Staff, other sources claim that the name of the officer is Oladiev, and he is an offspring of an old Russian aristocratic house. For the purpose of brevity we will use the name Oladiev.
10.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 15; about the description of the Black Sea region as the cradle of the European history see also F. Lukianov, “Vengerskoe Korolevstvo za Kavkazskim Khrebtom”, Izvestia, 21 February 1989.
11.
Krivoguz’s Modern History textbook focuses on the history of Europe. The bulk of the book analyses the developments in major European states. It is noteworthy that the “Liberation Fight of the people of the South-East and Central Europe” is described in a separate chapter on a par with West European states, imperialist rivalries, and the history of Marxist movement. Thus, the Balkans retain their important role as a link between Russian and European history; I. Krivoguz (1989), 116–131.
12.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 17, 22–23.
13.
Ibid ., 32.
14.
See also N. Karamzin (1993), vol. 6, 39–45.
15.
See also Karamzin, (1989), vol. 1, 56–57.
16.
From the first pages, the concept of a “True” Serbia becomes a prototype for a “True” Russia. All the positive features (according to temporal, ethical, power, and self-sacrificing criteria) are fused in the personalities of the pro-Russian Serb Kings Karageorgievich, whereas the pro-Austrian dynasty of Obrenovic is represented as the epitome of negative features, V. Pikul (2007), 30–33.
17.
The author gives a detailed account of the debauchery, filth, and decay at the royal court of Obrenovic in the late nineteenth-early twentieth century, V. Pikul (2007), 37–43.
18.
“Na Osnove Polnogo Ravnopravia, Samostoiatelsnosti i Vzaimnogo Uvazhenia: Vystuplenie M.S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 18 March 1988.
19.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 42; See also N. Karamzin (1989), vol. 1, 31, 14, 45.
20.
M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 3.
21.
V. Matveev, “Ot Baltiki do Chernogo Moria”, Izvestia, 17 August 1989.
22.
“V Ministerstve Oborony SSSR”, Izvestia, 12 September 1989.
23.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 200, 203.
24.
Ibid ., 147–150, 172–183, 200, 203, 213, 236–241; In Izvestia see also several major editorial articles about the hero of the Black Sea submarine Alexander Marinescu (“True” Russia) who was subjected to persecution by the bureaucrats in the Soviet Ministry of Defence (“False” Russia), Izvestia, 21 July 1989.
25.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 248.
26.
M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 36, 44, 59–60, 71–72, 164; Y. Kukushkin (1986), 20–24. It is noticeable that the anti-Russian uprising of the Chechen leader Shamil is now constructed as the class struggle of Caucasian highlanders against Russian imperialism.
27.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 125; N. Karamzin (1989–1993), vol. 7, 14.
28.
V. Furaev (1989), 14.
29.
V. But, “Vozvrashchayutsia Traditsii Donskikh Kazakov”, Izvestia, 6 August 1990.
30.
“Na Yuzhnoi Granitse”, Izvestia, 28 March 1989.
31.
R. Ignatiev, “Pogib v Neravnoi Skhvatke”, Izvestia, 26 July 1989.
32.
See e.g. V. Arsentiev, “Nespokoinie dni v Tskhinvali”, Izvestia, 30 November 1989; V. Arsentiev, “Abkhazia: Napriazhennost’ Sokhranyaetsia”, Izvestia, 20 July 1989.
33.
E. Kondratov, “Postav’ Sebia na Ego Mesto”, Izvestia, 5 October 1989; E. Kondratov, “Gagauzskiy Vopros”, Izvestia, 14 November 1989.
34.
See e.g. A. Cherepanov, I. Rozov, “Odessa Khochet Torgovat’ s Zagranitsei”, Izvestia, 2 March 1988; E. Grishin, “Kruizy Vozobnovleny no…”, Izvestia, 26 August 1989.
35.
“Podarki moriakov”, Izvestia, 2 April 1990.
36.
A. Dzhalilov, “Zator na Yuzhnom Napravlenii”, Izvestia, 4 August 1989; L. Kapelyushny, “Referendum Odessitov”, Izvestia, 17 December 1990.
37.
See e.g. R. Ignatiev, “Teplokhod Izgnannik Vse Eshche v Chernom More”, Izvestia, 10 March 1989; D. Poliakov, “Spasti ot Gibeli Dunai”, Izvestia, 1 May 1990.
38.
V. Pikul (2007), 934.
39.
Ibid ., 577.
40.
M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 145.
41.
V. Pikul (2007), 873.
42.
Ibid ., 871–873, 893, 919–920.
43.
Ibid ., 1009.
44.
Ibid ., 903.
45.
Collective ethnonym for numerous tribes living in the Northern Caucasus, which except of Circassians per se, includes: Abkhazians, Adygean, and Kabardines. Sometimes the term had a wider use to connote any Caucasian highlanders who were fighting against the Russian Empire. http://bie.slovarnik.ru/html/4/4erkes3.html.
46.
After emigrating from Russia to Turkey, the Caucasian highlanders were recruited into the Ottoman Army and dispatched to fight against the Balkan insurgents. In Pikul’s descriptions, their atrocities against the Bulgarian and Serbian non-combatants were such that the Russian Empire came to feel obliged to save the Balkan Slavs from the Black Sea barbarians, V. Pikul (2007), 450.
47.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 90, 93, 111, 117, 141, 152, 154; M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 79; See also “Evropeiskaya Tsivilizatsiya i Sovremennoye Politicheskoye Myshlenie”, Izvestia, 21 March 1989.
48.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 258–276; M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 56, 81–84, 157, 190, 196–208.
49.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 91–92, 95, 151.
50.
Ibid ., 109.
51.
Ibid ., 141, 229.
52.
As described above Russian relational identity construction takes place along the following criteria: temporal (progressive-reactionary), competence (intelligent vs. silly), ethics (ethical-unethical), and power (strong vs. weak).
53.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 91–92, 95, 151.
54.
V. Pikul (2007), 584–589.
55.
Ibid ., 681. This moment described by Pikul echoes with the research by I. Neumann about the use of Russia as Europe’s main Other to stabilise the European identity. I. Neumann, Uses of the Other: The “East” in European Identity Formation (Manchester University Press, 1998).
56.
V. Furaev (1989), 5, 7, 9, 10; See E. Bai, Y. Tyssovskiy, “Afghanistan: Pogasit Ogon Konflikta”, Izvestia, 18 February 1989; V. Matveev, “OON: Vysokaya Missia i Bolshaya Otvetsvennost”, Izvestia, 19 February 1989; “Rasist-Zakonodatel”, Izvestia, 23 February 1989; “Islamabad i Washington ne Vypolniayut Obiazatelstv”, Izvestia, 5 March 1989; B. Moskvichev, “Opasnost’ sprava”, Izvestia, 11 July 1990.
57.
A. Bovin, “Evropa i Evropeitsy”, Izvestia, 11 July 1989.
58.
Yu. Kovalenko, “Loran Fabius: My Dolzhny Luchshe Znat’ Drug Druga”, Izvestia, 15 February 1989; V. Malukhin, “SSSR - Frantsia: Dialog Pisatelei”, Izvestia, 25 February 1989; Pierre Morua, “Dvum Evropam Nuzhno Uchitsia Zhyt Vmeste”, 1 July 1989.
59.
W. Stützle, “Teper Mozhno Stroit Dom”, Izvestia, 1 January 1990; “Vstrecha M. S. Gorbacheva s A. Occheto”, Izvestia, 1 March 1989; H.-J.Vogel, “Pochemu Zapad Podderzhyvaet perestroiku”, Izvestia, 11 April 1989; T. Shanin, “Zhyzn’ Khorosha Mnogoobraziem”, 26 April 1989; H.-J. Vogel, “Pochemu Zapad Podderzhyvaet Perestroiku”, Izvestia, 11 April 1989.
60.
“Verkh Berut Razum i Doverie”, Izvestia, 2 January 1989, No. 2 (22540), Izvestia, 2 January, No.3 (22541); “My by Posovetovali Presidentu…”, Izvestia, 5 January 1989; Y. Kosinsky, “Frierich Durrenmat: Ne poteriat nit’ Ariadny”, Izvestia, 5 January 1989; N. Vovkun, “V chem Provinilsia Admiral”, Izvestia, 5 January 1989; V. Konovalov, “Chemu Sleduyet Uchitsia u Chayanova”, Izvestia, 25 February 1989; “Razoruzhenie Neobkhodimo Vsem Evropeitsam”, Izvestia, 5 March 1989; “Mir Kommentiruet, Mir Nadeetsia”, Izvestia, 9 April 1989; “Poslednee Zasedanie ‘Komissii Palme’”, Izvestia, 14 April 1989.
61.
“Pod Nazhymom Demokraticheskikh Sil”, Izvestia, 12 January 1989; A. Balandin, “Shans dlia Evropy”, Izvestia, 6 March 1989; E. Bovkun, “Esli by FRG skazala ‘Nyet’”, Izvestia, 7 April 1989; V. Vernikov, “Aktsia Trekh Evropeyskikh Gazet”, Izvestia, 20 January 1989; “Priem v Kremle”, Izvestia, 8 February 1990;
62.
See e.g. M. Zubko, “Periskopnaya Bolezn”, Izvestia, 13 February 1989; V. Nadein, “Dva Standarta Zbigneva Bzhezinskogo”, Izvestia, 15 February 1989; S. Guk, “Mirazhy s ‘Mirazhami’”, Izvestia, 18 July 1989.
63.
The “False” Europe is constructed along the same line: smartness-stupidity and perfidy-honesty. See e.g. the description of the Secretary General of the German CDU, H. Geisler, who proposed to the Nobel Committee that it award NATO the Nobel Peace Prize. The newspaper stressed that the German politician nominated an organisation within which American and NATO strategists were going to bring war to Europe and, in case of war, planned to bomb Germany and that would promote the gradual integration of Spain into NATO under its rightist government: E. Bovkun, “Nobeleveskaya Premia dlia NATO?”, Izvestia, 6 April 1989; V. Vernikov, “Ustupki Slovesnye i Po Suschestvu”, Izvestia, 8 April 1989.
64.
A. Balandin, “Modernizatsiya? Net, Doovoruzhenie”, Izvestia, 17 February 1989; N. Sautin, “Ne Mech—Shchit!” (Interview with the Commander of the Naval Forces of the USSR V. Chernavin), Izvestia, 22 February 1989. See on this topic of Western-Non-Europe against “True” Europe: A. Blinov, “Evropeyskii Visit Beykera”, Izvestia, 19 February 1989.
65.
See e.g. N. Ashford, “Puti k Obschemu Domu”, Izvestia, 27 January 1990; S. Kondrashov, “Otgorodivshys Drug ot Druga Nelzia Postroit’ Bezopasnost”, Izvestia, 27 January 1990.
66.
See e.g. N. Ashford, Ibid ; S. Kondrashov, Ibid .
67.
A. Bovin, “Zaboty Evropeiskie”, Izvestia, 2 February 1989.
68.
“George Kennan: Posle Kholodnoi Voiny”, Izvestia, 16 February 1989. See also commentary by the Izvestia correspondent Melor Sturua, who stressed that Kennan became disappointed about the policy of containment; L. Cortney, “Ia Khochu Verit’ Russkim”, Izvestia, 3 March 1989; A. Ulam, “Pomnit’ o Proshlykh oshybkakh Shtoby Izbezhat’ ikh v Budushchem”, Izvestia, 10 March 1989; E. Zaamuolt, “Ia byl ‘iastrebom’”, Izvestia, 27 September 1989.
69.
Neumann (1996), 164.
70.
“SSSR-ES: Gotovnost’ k Sotrudnichestvu: Rech N.I.Ryzhkova”, Izvestia, 20 July 1990; Ryzhkov seemed to be the person who represented the Soviet Union at various meetings with the European institutions. Izvestia published a long article when N. Ryzhkov attended the celebration of the 150th anniversary of Luxemburg’s independence: “Torzhestva v Luxemburge”, 19 April 1989; V. Vernikov, “Vidimost’ Soglasia i Protivorechia”, Izvestia, 28 June 1989. Nevertheless the article concluded with the hope that the relations between the West and East of Europe will deepen contacts with the East of the continent.
71.
V. Antonov, “Glava Predstavitelstva SSSR pri Evropeiskikh Soobshchestvakh”, Izvestia, 6 March 1989; “Torzhestva v Luxemburge”, Izvestia, 19 April 1989;
72.
“Novyj Etap Sotrudnichestva”, Izvestia, 12 May 1990.
73.
V. Furaev (1989), p. 167; “Nashestvie v Evropu: Yaponskie Kontserny Zavoevyvayut ‘Obshchiy Rynok’”, Izvestia, 26 August 1989.
74.
“Delegatsiya Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR v Assamblee ZES”, Izvestia, 14 July 1989; “Vmeste Stroit’ Novuyu Evropu”, Izvestia, 6 April 1990.
75.
Yu.Kovalenko, “ZES: Novye Tendentsii”, Izvestia, 6 June 1990.
76.
V. Furaev (1989), 157–158 l; M. Ilyinskiy, “Problemy Svoi i Chuzhye”, Izvestia 4 August 1989; E. Bovkun, “Proshchanie s Godesbergskoi Programmoi”, Izvestia, 3 April 1989; See also e.g. Photos of East German farmers striking against the new EU rules limiting access of their milk to European markets; reprinted from Spiegel magazine, Izvestia, 5 August 1990.
77.
A. Kapralov, “Razgovor o Budushchem Evropy”, Izvestia, 3 May 1989.
78.
See e.g. the articles by the renowned French economist and functionary Lionel Stoléru published in Le Monde and reprinted in the Soviet press: “Nuzhno Razveyat’ Mechty”, Izvestia, 14 June 1990. One might add here an interview by the British Foreign Minister, Douglas Hurd, who stated that a financial union in Europe would be a catastrophe for the UK; see e.g. Izvestia, 16 July 1990.
79.
OJ, 1990, L 68. – 3.
80.
“Vizit v Belgiu”, Izvestia, 19 December 1989; “Podpisan Dogovor s ES”, Izvestia, 19 December 1989.
81.
Y. Kovalenko, “Strasburgskiy Prizyv”, Izvestia, 30 October 1989; Yu. Kosinskiy, “Tema Diskussiy Budushchee Evropy”, Izvestia, 9 July 1990.
82.
G. Charodeev, “Nichego Obshchego s Podlinnoi Pozitsiey”, Izvestia, 24 February 1989; S. Tosunian, “U Vysokogo Poroga EES”, Izvestia, 16 April 1989; S. Tosunian, “Kantsler Vranistkiy: Avstria ne Otstupit ot Neitraliteta”, Izvestia, 12 August 1989; V. Shmyganosvki, “Strany EAST Gotovy k Sotrudnichestvu”, Izvestia, 17 March 1989; “V Interesakh Avstrii i Evropy”, Izvestia, 6 July 1989; V. Shmyganovskiy, S. Kondrashov, “Malenkaya Strana u Kotoroi est Chemu Pouchitsia”, Izvestia, 26 October 1989; S. Tosunian, “Posle Pisma v Brussel”, Izvestia, 8 May 1990.
83.
Izvestia gave coverage of a broad debate about Finland’s potential membership in NATO that sparkled in the Finnish society after a provocative article by Lieutenant-General, Gustav Hegglund, a top military commander and MP of the Finnish parliament. See: “Vyshel iz Povinoveniya: Finskiy General Otstaivaet Pravo na Glasnost”, Izvestia, 24 November 1990; V. Shmyganovskiy, “Mesto v Obshcheevropeiskom Dome”, Izvestia, 20 March 1989.
84.
“Otvety Predsedatelia Soveta Ministrov SSSR N. I. Ryzhkova na Vorposy Glavnogo Redaktora Luxemburgskoi Gazety “Republiken Loren”, C. Montegnu, Izvestia 19 April 1989.
85.
Yu. Kovalev, “Na Puti k ‘Evropeiskoi Konfederatsii’”, Izvestia, 6 April 1990; Yu. Kovalenko, “Zhertvy na Altar’ Edinstva”, Izvestia, 8 May 1990; “ES net Soglasia” [France-Press Report], Izvestia, 19 June 1990; E. Guseinov, “Sozdan Edinyi Rynok Kapitalov”, Izvestia, 4 July 1990; Yu. Krivopalov, “Shto Stoit za Otstavkoi Khau”, Izvestia, 4 November 1990; Yu. Kovalenko, “Strassburg ili Brussel”, Izvestia, 5 December 1990.
86.
Yu. Kovalenko, “Sokhranitsia li Os’ Parizh-Bonn”, Izvestia, 23 July 1990.
87.
V. Matveev, “Politicheskaya Bomba Parizha”, Izvestia, 28 July 2989; A. Krivolapov, “Ternistyi Put’ k Soglasiyu”, Izvestia, 3 September 1989; Yu. Kovalenko, “Est li Zolotaya Seredina”, Izvestia, 4 April 1990; B. Moskvichev, “Na Povestke Dnia—soedinennye Shtaty Evropy”, Izvestia, 4 April 1990; Yu. Kovalenko, “Frantsia-SShA: Obmen Bulavochnymi Ukolami”, Izvestia, 8 April 1990; Yu. Kovalev, “EES—Na Voennye Rel’sy”, Izvestia, 15 April 1990; Yu. Kovalev, “Zhertvy na Altar’ Edinstva”, Izvestia, 8 May 1990; “Vstrecha v Strasburge”, Izvestia, 21 May 1990.
88.
The European Union would become a “True” Europe if it positioned itself as a temporary stage of the development of Europe which would eventually come to its logical conclusion— the reunification of Europe: Yu. Kovalenko, “Enrique Baron Crespo: Nastoyaschaya Mirnaya Revolutsia”, Izvestia, 4 January 1990.
89.
“Enrique Baron Crespo, Prezident Evropy”, Izvestia, 28 July 1989.
90.
“Mnogogranniy Politicheskiy Sovetsko-Frantsuzskiy Dialog”, Izvestia, 15 November 1989; “Eduard Shevardnadze-Roland Dumas; Loran Fabius: Parlament Serdtse Demokratii”, Izvestia, 16 November 1989; Yu. Kovalenko, A. Krivolapov, “Parizh-London- Evropa”, Izvestia, 4 May 1990; Yu. Kovalenko, “Vstrecha v Strasburge”, Izvestia, 21 May 1990; “Novy Etap Sotrudnichestva”, Izvestia, 12 May 1990; “Evropa v Meniayushchikhsia Koordinatakh”, Izvestia, 26 May 1990; M. Zubkov, “My v Prave Govorit’ o Novoi Evrope”, Izvestia, 13 June 1990; A. Suvorov, Yu. Kovalenko, “ES: Izmeneniya v Povestke Dnia”, Izvestia, 25 June 1990; S. Krivopalov, “V Dubline o Evrope”, Izvestia, 26 June 1990; Yu. Kovalenko, “Kakaya Zhe Pomoshch Nuzhna SSSR”, Izvestia, 30 June 1990; “Rech M. S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 20 November 1990.
91.
See e.g. interview with the president of the Finnish Parliament Kalovi Korsi, references to the Finnish president U. K. Kekkonen, V. Shmyganovskiy: “Nash Obshchiy Dom Evropa”, Izvestia, 22 October 1989. See also about juxtapositions in reports about Gorbachev’s visit to Finland: S. Kondrashov, V. Shmyganovskiy, “Net Nichego Vazhnee Dobrososedstva”, Izvestia, 25 October 1989; “Krepit’ Dobrososedstvo”, Izvestia, 25 October 1989.
92.
The first Brest is a French port on the Atlantic coast; the second Brest is the legendary Soviet fortress-city on the Western border of the USSR: A. Bovin, “Evropa i Evropeitsy”, Izvestia, 11 July 1989; “Ot Bresta do Bresta”, Izvestia, 8 August 1990.
93.
The battle of Kulikovo Pole is constructed as the most significant victory of the Slavonic forces against the Tatar troops of the Golden Horde, which resulted in liberation of the Russian lands and the creation of the Moscow principality, forerunner of the Russian Empire. See e.g. at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo.
94.
V. Pikul (2007), 100, 427, 477, 907–914.
95.
Ibid ., pp. 13, 39, 91, 107, 119, 195, 199, 594.
96.
V. Furaev (1989), 23, 28; V. Pikul (2007), 956.
97.
V. Furaev (1989), 51.
98.
“Na Osnove Polnogo Ravnopraviya, Samostoiatelnosti i Vzaimnogo Uvazheniya: Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 18 March 1988.
99.
The reports about Yugoslavia described the same troubles that the Soviet leadership was trying to tackle at home, e.g. obsolete equipment and inefficient enterprises, unfavourable weather conditions for farmers, increased [of] imports, an export-dominated economy, heavy dependency on the external market, inflation, disintegration of economic life of the country, and excessive consumption. On its front pages Izvestia covered the preparation for and the course of Gorbachev’s visit to Yugoslavia. See e.g. “Nakanune vizita”, Izvestia, 5 March, 1988; N. Ermolovich, L. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia: Vremiya Resheniy”, Izvestia, 12 March 1988; “Pribytie M. S. Gorbacheva v Belgrad”, Izvestia, 15 March 1988; N. Ermolovich, L. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia Vstrechaet Vysokogo Gostiya”, Izvestia, 15 March 1988.
100.
“Na Osnove Polnogo Ravnopraviya, Samostoiatelnosti i Vzaimnogo Uvazheniya: Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 18 March 1988. The correspondents accompanying the Soviet leader stressed that there were more than 30 military units staffed by Soviet people who fought in the ranks of the Yugoslav National Liberation army. One of the most outstanding fighters in the Yugoslav Army was the commander of the reconnaissance group Mekhti Ganifa Ogly Gusein Zade, a Soviet citizen of Azeri origin; N. Ermolovich, L. Kolosov, “Budushchemu Mirnoe Nebo”, Izvestia 19 March 1988.
101.
N. Ermolovich, L. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia Vstrechaet Vysokogo Gostiya”, Izvestia, 15 March 1988.
102.
“Obogoshchat’ Sotrudnichestvo vo Vsekh Sferakh”, Izvestia, 19 March 1988.
103.
“Sotrudnichestvo: Novye Podkhody”, Izvestia, 28 January 1989.
104.
V. Furaev (1989), 81; See e.g. “Dan Start Venskim Peregovoram: Vystuplenie E. A. Shevardnadze”, Izvestia, 7 March 1989; “Sovetsko-Yugoslavskie Peregovory”, Izvestia, 15 March 1988; “Rech Tovarishcha Gorbacheva M. S.”, Izvestia, 17 March 1988; “My Navsegda Zapomnim eti Vstrechi”, Izvestia, 18 March 1988; “Na Osnove Polnogo Ravnopravia, Samostoiatelsnosti i Vzaimnogo Uvazhenia: Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 18 March 1988; E. Vostrukhov, S. Skosyrev, “Konferentsiya Zakonchila Svoyu Rabotu”, Izvestia, 8 September 1989.
105.
N. Ermolovich, L. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia: Vremia Resheniy”, Izvestia, 12 March 1988; At the same time the Yugoslav side demonstrated its interest in the visit. Gorbachev’s “Perestroika and New Thinking for our country and the entire world” and collection of his articles were translated into Serb-Croat and published ahead of his visit to Belgrade: See e.g. “Izdaniy v Yugoslavii”, Izvestia, 13 March 1988; N. Ermolovich, L. Kolosov, “Budushchemu Mirnoe Nebo”, Izvestia, 19 March 1988; There were also a series of follow-up reports by Izvestia, see e.g. “Otkrytyi Dialog: Yugoslavskie Rukovoditeli o Visite M. S. Gorbacheva v SFRYu”, Izvestia, 20 March 1988; “SSSR-SFRYu: Novye Rubezhy”, Izvestia, 22 March 1988; “Vysokaya Otsenka”, Izvestia, 25 March 1988; See also V. Volodin, “Balkany Vybirayut Sotrudnichestvo”, Izvestia, 12 June 1989; Yu. Kovalenko, “Mosty na Vostochniy Bereg”, Izvestia, 21 June 1989.
106.
L. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia Ishchet Premiera”, Izvestia, 12 January 1989; L. Kolosov, “Trudnye Dni Yugoslavii”, Izvestia, 27 January 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Yugoslavia, Kabinet proyavliaet kharakter”, Izvestia, 28 July 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Strasti Vokrug Infliatsii”, Izvestia, 25 August 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Po Komande k Novoi Valiute”, Izvestia, 2 January; A. Pushkov, “V Gordom Odinochestve”, Izvestia, 25 April 1990; See also a long series of articles by Izvestia correspondent in Belgrade E. Vostrukhov: “Kak Dinar Stal Konvertiruemym”, Izvestia, 7–11 August 1990; E. Vostrukhov, “Smozhet li Soyuz Pomoch Yugoslavskim Reformam”, Izvestia, 3 November 1990.
107.
V. Pikul (2007), 102. One of the examples of Pikul’s manipulations when he depicts Serb officers as former villagers. A more detailed study of Dimitrijevic biography has demonstrated that Apis himself and his associates originated from petty bourgeoisie and city dwellers. D. MacKenzie, Apis: The Congenial Conspirator, The Life of Colonel Dragutin T. Dimitrijevic (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989).
108.
“SSSR-SFRY: Krepnet Doverie”, Izvestia, 30 January 1989; See also proceedings of the round-table between Soviet and Yugoslav economists held in Moscow under the aegis of the Soviet Council of Ministers; “Tolko ne Polumery: Sovietskie i Yugoslavskie Ucheniya o Putiakh Obnovlenia Ekonomiki”, Izvestia, 23 July 1990.
109.
L. Kolosov, “Kto Ostanovit Inflatsiyu”, Izvestia, 11 January 1989; “Otkryt Put’ k Demokratizatsii”, Izvestia, 16 April 1989. About the same time Izvestia published reports about Gorbachev’s visits to the Ukraine and Milosevic’s visit to Kosovo. There was also a detailed and lengthy piece on the alternative military service introduced in Yugoslavia that echoed the debate in Soviet society, E. Vostrukhov, “Bez Oruzhia, No Vdvoe Bolshe”, Izvestia, 30 April 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Voznesenie Raschital Computer”, Izvestia, 27 June 1989.
110.
Izvestia, 1 January 1989.
111.
S. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia bez Pravitelstva”, Izvestia, 3 January 1989.
112.
“Unter v Lampasakh”, Izvestia, 2 January 1989; S. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia bez Pravitelstva”, Izvestia, 3 January 1989, No. 2 (22540); “Nam po Silam Pobedit Burokratiu!”, Izvestia, 2 February 1989; “Ob Usilenii Borby s Organizovannoi Prestupnostiyu”, Izvestia, 23 December 1989; “Vtoroi Siezd Narodnykh Deputatov”, Izvestia, 25 December 1989; “V Press-Tsentre MVD”, Izvestia, 6 May 1990; V. Romaniuk, “Na Shto Natknulsia Shprits: Kak Riadovoi Burokrat Otmenil Reshenie Prezidenta SSSR”, Izvestia, 5 July 1990.
113.
V. Pikul (2007), 909.
114.
Ibid ., 1002–1003, 1022.
115.
Ibid ., 361–371, 509, 627.
116.
“Otstavka Pravitelstva”, Izvestia, 1 January 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Sformirovan Prezidium Federatsii”, Izvestia, 15 May 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Kakim byt Belgradu”, Izvestia, 23 June 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Zaem Nadezhdy”, Izvestia, 25 June 1989.
117.
Frequent use of expression “as history proved” is one more indicator that the Russian analysts perceived the reality in terms of inevitable judgemental processes.
118.
S. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia bez Pravitelstva”, Izvestia, 3 January 1989; See also L. Kolosov, “Yugoslavia: Plenum TsK: SKYu Zavershyl Svoiu Rabotu”, Izvestia, 17 February 1989.
119.
Sob. Korr Izvestiy, “Posle Mitinga v Belgrade”, Izvestia, 10 September 1989.
120.
“Podvedeny Itogi Vyborov v Serbii”, Izvestia, 21 November 1989.
121.
T. Hopf (2002), 8.
122.
Full quotation: “The USA and Great Britain tried to use the peace negotiations with the states of Central and South-Eastern Europe to interfere in the internal affairs of these states and to undermine their democratic transformation. To achieve this goal the USA resorted to demonstrating its monopoly of nuclear supremacy. During the negotiations they tested nuclear bombs…accompanied by the fuss and praises of military might of the USA. But they did not manage to intimidate the Soviet Union and other peace-loving countries. The Soviet Union decisively rejected attempts of the Western Powers to impose an unjust, imperialist peace on the peoples of the defeated countries”. The quotation signals another important feature of Russia’s Great Power identity—magnanimity. Although many of the countries liberated by the USSR from fascism were formerly German allies and could be treated as defeated warring sides, according to the textbooks the USSR stood against any unjust post-war settlements. V. Furaev (1989), 236–237.
123.
V. Furaev (1989), 36–82. References to the Balkans are becoming scarce now because the authors want to stress the Soviet-led modernisation and the distance of the USSR from other Balkan signifiers—Great Power, imperialism, interethnic conflicts, and so on.
124.
V. Furaev (1989), 46, 48, 54, 62, 79–80.
125.
“K Sobytiam v Nagornom Karabakhe”, Izvestia, 14 July 1989; “Chitateli ‘Izvestiy’ o Mezhnatsionalnykh Otnosheniakh”, Izvestia, 15 July 1989.
126.
V. Pikul (2007), 292.
127.
See e.g. E. Vostrukhov, “Federatsiya ili Konfederatsiya”, Izvestia, 22 September 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Ugroza Navisshaya nad Federatsiey: Nochnoi Plenum TsK SKYu”, Izvestia, 27 September 1989.
128.
See e.g. “Obrashchenie Prezidenta Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR k Narodu Litovskoi SSSR”, Izvestia, 1 January 1990 and subsequent issues.
129.
E. Vostrukhov, “Sloveniya v Tiskakh Blokady”, Izvestia, 8 January 1990; “Azerbaijan: Nuzny Vyderzhka i Uvazhenie k Zakonu”, Izvestia, 9 January 1990; “Litva: Poisk Vzaimoponimania”, Izvestia, 9 January 1990; E. Vostrukhov, “Sud’bu SKYu Reshat Kommunisty”, Izvestia, 2 April 1990; L. Kapelyushniy, “Informatsiya Dolzhna Byt Obiektivnoy”, Izvestia, 4 April, 6 April 1990; I. Litvinova, “Kommunisty Delayut Vybor”, Izvestia, 8 April 1990; L. Kapelyushniy, “Esti li Lotsiya u Litovskogo Korablia”, Izvestia, 28 April 1990; E. Kondratov, “Postav’ Sebia na Ego Mesto”, Izvestia, 5 October 1989; E. Kondratov, “Gagauzskiy Vopros”, Izvestia, 14 November 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Oppozitsia Protiv Referenduma”, Izvestia, 1 July 1990; E. Vostrukhov, “Referendum i Ego Posledstviya”, Izvestia, 3 July 1990.
130.
E. Vostrukhov, “Aresty Serbov v Khorvatii”, Izvestia, 4 October 1990.
131.
I. Krivoguz (1989), 117.
132.
V. Pikul (2007), 893, 919, 923–927, 933.
133.
V. Pikul (2007), 58, 286, 290–291, 485.
134.
E. Vostrukhov, “Kto Razduvaet Tleyushchiy Konflikt”, Izvestia, 13 August 1989.
135.
“V MID SSSR”, Izvestia, 21 November 1989; In subsequent material the Soviet MFA also criticised Bush for supporting those attempting to destabilise the situation in Latvia and other Baltic states: O. Alexandrov, “Nelovko, no Govorit’ Pridetsiya”, Izvestia, 24 November 1989; “O Zaiavlenii Chlenov Kongressa SshA”, Izvestia, 6 January 1990.
136.
E. Vostrukhov, “Snova Vystrely v Kosovo”, Izvestia, 2 June 1989; E. Vostrukhov, “Otmeneny Osobye Mery”, Izvestia, 3 September 1989.
137.
The term “balkanization” was also used in the 1960s in the Soviet press. But in that period it mostly referred to the “imperial powers trying to split anti-imperialist movements”, whereas this was the first time that Khasbulatov applied it to Russia. See e.g. V. Maevskiy, “Posledniaya Stavka: Pismo iz Afriki”, Pravda, 25 August 1960; “Ruslan Khasbulatov, Pod Flagom Edinstva Mozhet i Dolzhno Prokhodit’ Vozrozhdenie Rossii”, Izvestia, 24 September 1990.
138.
V. Pikul (2007), 1095.
139.
“Lakonochi” (Serb.)—“Good night!”.
140.
V. Pikul (2007), 1097.
141.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 30. See the same description in Pankratova’s textbook (1947) described in Chapter 2.
142.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 91, 111, 219; M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 77.
143.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 73, 91.
144.
It is not merely the courage that is emphasised in numerous descriptions of the Russian encounters with the European armies. These descriptions demonstrate a pattern: Russians attack and win the armies, which are at least twice as big as the Russian units; in other cases textbooks speak about the ratios 1 to 3 and 1 to 5.
145.
M. Nechkina, P. Leibengrub (1984), 244. However, it is precisely some irrational readiness for “self-sacrifice” and “tactical smartness” that helps Russians win. It is not surprising that Pikul in his novel “The Favorite” describes in great detail the victory of the Russian troops under Cahul where Marshal Rumiantsev voiced his famous maxima.
146.
V. Pikul (2007), 25.
147.
N. Karamzin (1989), vol. 1, 17.
148.
N. Karamzin (1993), vol. 5, 122; Karamzin praised, for example, the Russian ruler Vasiliy, who worked gradually and prudently towards the greatness of Russia without paroxysms of passion, leaving to his descendants no need for or glory in correcting his mistakes.
149.
N. Karamzin (1991), vol. 2, 27–30, 50–51, 57.
150.
N. Karamzin (1989), vol. 1, 98–100, 110.
151.
N. Karamzin (1998), vol. 6, 52, 213.
152.
N. Karamzin (1989), vol. 1, 21, 22, 89.
153.
V. Pikul (2007).
154.
In many late Soviet textbooks there are numerous references to how France, Britain, and Germany had become “industrial powers”, leaving Russia largely “an agrarian and underdeveloped country”.
155.
A. Pushkov, “V Gordom Odinochestve”, Izvestia, 25 April 1990.
156.
A. Yakovlev, “Na Poroge Krutykh Peremen”, Izvestia, 1 June 1990.
157.
On organicist perception of Russia in Russian area studies see e.g. M. Laurelle, “The Orient in Russian Thought at the Turn of the Century”, in D. Shlapentokh, Russia between East and West: Scholarly Debates on Eurasianism (Leiden & Boston: Brill, 2007), 9–36; S. Blank, “The Sacred Monster: Russia as a Foreign Policy Actor”, in S. Blank (ed.), Perspectives on Russian Foreign Policy (Carslile: SSI, 2012), 138. Constructivist IR scholars use the concept of organicism for ontological and methodological purposes, i.e. to argue that the state can be described as a person, who can act on the basis of his Self. See e.g. I. Neumann, “Beware of Organicism: The Narrative Self of the State”, Review of International Studies, 30 (2004): 259–268. To paraphrase M. Desai, the term “organicism” is an understanding of international politics as a self-organised process that no single agency—individual or collective—designs or controls. See e.g. M. Desai, “Globalisation: Neither Ideology nor Utopia”, Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 14, 1 (2000): 16–31.
158.
“Na Osnove Polnogo Ravnopraviya, Samostoyatelsnosti i Vzaimnogo Uvazheniya: Vystuplenie M. S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 18 March 1988.
159.
See e.g. V. Furaev (1989), 224, 226–227, 234; also E. Shevardnadze, “Blizhniy Vostok. Shans Istoricheskogo Kompromisa”, Izvestia, 23 Feburary 1989; “Vstrecha M. S. Gorbachova s Rukovodstvom Kongressa SshA”, Izvestia, 4 June 1990; “Vystuplenie M. S. Gobacheva na III Sessii Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR”, Izvestia, 13 June 1990; “Joint Press Conference [by M. Gorbachev and B. Malroney]”, Izvestia, 2 June 1990.
160.
V. Pikul, Bitva Zheleznykh Kantslerov, Tashkent: Ukituvchi, 1989, 558–580.
161.
V. Furaev (1989), 5; S. Tosunian, “Uspekh Politiki Novogo Myshlenia”, Izvestia, 15 January 1989.
162.
I. Krivoguz (1989), 84.
163.
Ibid ., 87.
164.
M. Nechkina, A. Fadeev, and P. Leibengrub (1968), 145.
165.
N. Karamzin (1998), vol. 6, 209.
166.
A. Chubarian, “Avgust 1939 Goda”, Izvestia, 1 July 1989.
167.
“Rech M. S. Gorbacheva”, Izvestia, 7 October 1989; “V Press-Tsentre MVD”, Izvestia, 6 May 1990; “Vstrecha Ministrov Shesti Gosudarstv: Vystuplenie E. A. Shevarnadze”, Izvestia 7 May 1990; “Po Formule «Dva Plus Chetyre»”, Izvestia, 9 May 1990.
168.
“Evropeiskaya Tsivilizatsiya i Sovremennoye Politicheskoye Myshlenie”, Izvestia, 21 March 1989.

Bibliography

Hopf, T., Social Construction of International Politics, Identities and Foreign Policies, Moscow, 1955 and 1999, Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press, 2002.
Google Scholar

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Political Science, University of Liege, Liege, Belgium
Dr. Vsevolod Samokhvalov

Authors

Dr. Vsevolod Samokhvalov
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Samokhvalov, V. (2017). Writing Russianess, Greatness, Europe, and the Balkans in the Late Soviet Discourse in 1980s. In: Russian-European Relations in the Balkans and Black Sea Region. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52078-0_4

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52078-0_4
Published: 11 April 2017
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-52077-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-52078-0
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics