Abstract
From England through China and into Japan, Hsiung’s chapter traces the peregrinations of a textbook for the deaf – the Circle of Knowledge – in order to understand the logic of global genres. In particular, Hsiung contends that the study of such genres must move beyond models of global book history that give precedence to empire as a motor of textual circulation. To this end, the chapter develops a concept of ‘radical commensurability’ to describe both the Circle’s educational method, and its ability to resonate unexpectedly with transnational audiences, linking ideas of deafness to missionary theories of translation and the development of non-Western science. Ultimately, the chapter concludes with the ironic suggestion that textbooks become global only insofar as their pedagogical content fails to be universal.
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Notes
- 1.
Charles Baker, ‘Account of the Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb’, in Contributions to Publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the Central Society of Education (Yorkshire: privately re-printed, 1842), p. 33.
- 2.
Charles Baker, A Teacher’s Lessons on Scripture Characters (London: Longman and Co., 1833), p. [i]. For a bibliography of Baker’s works, see ‘Biographical Sketch of the Late Charles Baker, Ph.D.’, American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, 20:4 (1875), pp. 213–215.
- 3.
Charles Baker, Graduated Reading I. Consisting of a Circle of Knowledge in 200 Parts (London: Thomas Varty & Co., 1847).
- 4.
[Advertisement], Publishers’ Circular and General Record of British and Foreign Literature, 10:225 (1847), p. 70; Sampson Low, The British Catalogue of Books published from October 1837 to December 1852, vol. 1 (London: Sampson Low and Son, 1853), p. 18.
- 5.
The fifth edition was published in London by Varty & Owen; the tenth edition was published in London in 1861 by Wertheim, Macintosh, and Hunt. Note that in strict bibliographical terms, ‘edition’ here is a misnomer, since what publishers labeled as successive ‘editions’ of the Circle appear to have been reprinted from stereotyped plates, the only changes occurring in the front matter. For a full list of these ‘editions’, see Shirley McGlynn Kesert, ‘A Checklist of the Charles Baker Collection of the Gallaudet College Library’, Master’s thesis (Gallaudet University, 1948), pp. 60–61.
- 6.
[Advertisement], Publishers’ Circular and General Record of British and Foreign Literature, 38:909 (1875), p. 571.
- 7.
East India (education). Return to an address of the Honourable House of Commons, 1859 (186) XXIV, pp. 401, 657–662; Charles Baker, The Circle of Knowledge, Revised and Adapted for the Use of Boys in the Government Schools of India, ed. A.R. Fuller (London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 1864).
- 8.
For a bibliography of both Chinese and Japanese editions, see Shin Kokui, Kindai keimō no sokuseki: Tōzai bunka kōryū to gengo sesshoku (Suita-shi: Kansai Daigaku shuppanbu, 2002).
- 9.
Charles Baker, Encyclopedia elementar ou o Circulo dos conhecimentos humanos (Macao: n.p., 1879).
- 10.
See Rimi B. Chatterjee, Empires of the Mind: A History of the Oxford University Press in India under the Raj (New Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Ulrike Stark, An Empire of Books: The Naval Kishore Press and the Diffusion of the Printed Word in Colonial India (Ranikhet: Permanent Black, 2008), pp. 228–240; Alexis Weedon, Victorian Publishing: The Economics of Book Production for a Mass Market, 1836–1916 (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2003), pp. 38–45, 56–57, 111–39. See also the report on the panel ‘Educating the Empire: Beginning a Transnational Book History Project’, Mary Hammond, ‘SHARP Toronto 2009’, SHARP News, 18:4 (2009), p. 5. Finally, on the importance of cheap British anthologies, see Priya Joshi, In Another Country: Colonialism, Culture, and the English Novel in India (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), pp. 93–138.
- 11.
See Antoinette Burton, ‘Getting Outside the Global: Re-positioning British Imperialism in World History’, in Race, Nation and Empire: Making Histories, 1750 to the Present, eds. Catherine Hall and Keith McClelland (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010), pp. 199–216.
- 12.
Roger Chartier, The Order of Books: Readers, Authors, and Libraries in Europe between the Fourteenth and Eighteenth Centuries, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), pp. 6–8.
- 13.
On the global book as an engine of deterritorialisation, see Antoinette Burton and Isabel Hofmeyr, ‘Introduction: The Spine of Empire? Books and the Making of an Imperial Commons’, in Ten Books That Shaped the British Empire: Creating an Imperial Commons, eds. Antoinette Burton and Isabel Hofmeyr (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014), p. 10; Alison Rukavina, ‘Social Networks: Modelling the Transnational Distribution and Production of Books’, in Movable Type, Mobile Nations: Interactions in Transnational Book History, eds. Simon Frost and Robert W. Rix (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2010), p. 79.
- 14.
On ‘pedagogy’ and empire, see Partha Chatterjee, The Black Hole of Empire: History of a Global Practice of Power (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), pp. 222–263; Sanjay Seth, Subject Lessons: The Western Education of Colonial India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007).
- 15.
The discussion occurs from 1134b18 to 1135a5 in the Nicomachean Ethics. For the standard English translation, see Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, in The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation, vol. 2, ed. Jonathan Barnes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 1790–1791.
- 16.
Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, trans. Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1961), pp. 60–61, 85.
- 17.
Lydia H. Liu, ‘Introduction’, in Tokens of Exchange: The Problem of Translation in Global Circulations, ed. Lydia H. Liu (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), pp. 2–12; Lydia H. Liu, ‘The Question of Meaning-Value in the Political Economy of the Sign’, in Tokens of Exchange, pp. 13–41; Isabel Hofmeyr, The Portable Bunyan: A Transnational History of The Pilgrim’s Progress (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 13.
- 18.
Burton and Hofmeyr, ‘Introduction’, pp. 16–20.
- 19.
Baker, A Teacher’s Lessons, p. ii.
- 20.
Ibid., p. [i].
- 21.
- 22.
See Charles Baker, ‘The Abbe de l’Épée’ and ‘The Abbé Sicard’, in Contributions to Publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the Central Society of Education (Yorkshire: privately re-printed, 1842), pp. 375–385, 386–392.
- 23.
Jules Paul Seigel, ‘The Enlightenment and the Evolution of a Language of Signs in France and England’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 30:1 (1969), p. 106.
- 24.
Augustus De Morgan, ‘On Some Methods Employed for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb’, Quarterly Journal of Education, 3:6 (1832), p. 209. Emphasis in original.
- 25.
Baker, Graduated Reading I (1847), p. 1.
- 26.
‘The Circle of Knowledge’, The Bucks Herald (Aylesbury, England), 28 December 1861, p. 3. On the Circle’s ‘more extended and systematic nature’, see also ‘Graduated Reading: comprising a Circle of Knowledge’, Westminster Review, 52:103 (1850), p. 319.
- 27.
Baker, Graduated Reading I (1847), p. 2.
- 28.
Baker, ‘Account of the Yorkshire Institution’, p. 28.
- 29.
This claim appears specifically in a modified preface for a reprint of the Circle by the Systematic Bible Teacher. See Charles Baker, Graduated Reading; comprising a Circle of Knowledge (London: ‘The Systematic Bible Teacher’ Depository, [n. d.]), p. iv.
- 30.
On these battles and their relation to textbook publishing, see Patrick Walsh, ‘The Political Economy of Irish School Books’, in The Irish Book in English, 1891–2000, ed. Clare Hutton and Patrick Walsh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), pp. 335–366; J.M. Goldstrom, The Social Content of Education 1808–1870: A Study of the Working Class School Reader in England and Ireland (Shannon, Ireland: Irish University Press, 1972), pp. 90–109.
- 31.
Report on Popular Education in the Punjab and its dependencies, for the year 1861–1862 (Lahore: 1862), p. 10.
- 32.
Charles Baker, The Circle of Knowledge, revised and adapted for the Use of Boys in the Government Schools of India, ed. A.R. Fuller (London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 1864).
- 33.
First Report of the Calcutta School-Book Society (Calcutta: n.p., 1818), p. 13.
- 34.
Baker, ‘On the Education of the Deaf and Dumb’, p. 135.
- 35.
Historical and Financial Statement of Forty Years’ Work at the Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (Doncaster: printed at the Institution, 1869), p. 9.
- 36.
‘The Circle of Knowledge’, The Bucks Herald, p. 3
- 37.
For a detailed history of the LMS Press, see Ching Su, ‘The Printing Presses of the London Missionary Society among the Chinese’, PhD diss. (University of London, 1996).
- 38.
James Legge, Preface, in Charles Baker, Graduated Reading; comprising A Circle of Knowledge [Zhihuan qimeng shuke chubu], trans. James Legge (Hongkong: London Missionary Society Press, 1856), p. 1a. In identifying page numbers for Chinese and Japanese books, which at the time were typically foliated and read from right to left, I employ the leaf number followed by ‘a’ for verso and ‘b’ for recto.
- 39.
- 40.
Those of 1864 and 1868, both printed at the Hong Kong press of the LMS. The other editions include an 1859 Canton printing that excerpted only the Chinese from Legge’s text; an 1873 version printed in at the LMS Shanghai press; an 1883 edition printed by the Zhonghua yinwu ju, which had taken over the LMS Hong Kong Press after it folded earlier that year; and finally another Hong Kong edition in 1895, printed by Man Yu Tong.
- 41.
Historical and Financial Statement of Forty Years’ Work, p. 9.
- 42.
Baker, ‘On the Education of the Deaf and Dumb’, p. 131. Emphasis in original.
- 43.
Baker, ‘On Teaching Reading’, p. 224.
- 44.
Anna Johnston, Missionary Writing and Empire, 1800–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 133–135, 182.
- 45.
James Legge, ‘Principles of Composition in Chinese, as deduced from the Written Characters’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 11:2 (1879), p. 252.
- 46.
Ibid., pp. 240, 259.
- 47.
Ibid., p. 239.
- 48.
James Legge, The Notions of the Chinese concerning Gods and Spirits: With an examination of the defense of an essay, On the Proper Rendering of the Words Elohim and Theos, into the Chinese Language, by William J. Boone, D.D. (Hong Kong: Hongkong Register Office, 1852), pp. 76, 111.
- 49.
Ibid., p. 110.
- 50.
[John Locke], Æsop’s Fables, in English and Latin, interlineary, for the benefit of those who not having a master, would learn either of these tongues. With sculptures. (London: printed for A. J. Churchil, 1703), pp. a2r–v. See also Chris Stray, ‘John Taylor and Locke’s Classical System’, Paradigm, 20 (1996), pp. 26–38.
- 51.
Christopher A., Reed, Gutenberg in Shanghai: Chinese Print Capitalism, 1876–1937 (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2005), p. 42; Xiantao Zhang, The Origins of the Modern Chinese Press: The Influence of the Protestant Missionary Press in Late Qing China (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 110–111.
- 52.
Guido F. Verbeck, Nagasaki Branch of the Japan Mission, Annual Report for the Year Ending 31 December 1860, 743/1/1, Verbeck Correspondence, Gardner A. Library.
- 53.
John Liggins, ‘Letter from Rev. Mr. Liggins (Nagasaki, 26 May 1859)’, Spirit of Missions, 24 (1859), p. 461.
- 54.
Verbeck to Philip Peltz, 12 Sept. 1861, 743/1/1, Verbeck Correspondence, Gardner A. Library.
- 55.
Verbeck, Nagasaki Branch of the Japan Mission, Annual Report.
- 56.
Liu, ‘Introduction’, pp. 1–12.
- 57.
[Charles Baker], Chikan keimō, ed. Harada Goichi, trans. James Legge ([Edo]: [1862]), A90:865, Tanaka Yoshio Collection, University of Tokyo General Library.
- 58.
Ibid., pp. 4b, 6b
- 59.
Tanaka Yoshio, ‘Kaikodan’, in Tanaka Yoshio-kun nanaroku tenrankai kinen shi, ed. Dai-Nihon Sanrin-kai (Tokyo: Dai-Nihon Sanrin-kai, 1913), pp. 10–18.
- 60.
Hirano Mitsuru, ‘Bakumastu no honzōgakusha Abe Yoshitō (Rekisai) no nenpu’, Sankō shoshi kenkyū, 56 (2002), p. 50.
- 61.
Charles Baker, Chikan keimō, ed. Yanagawa Shunsan, trans. James Legge (Edo: Kaibutsusha, 1866).
- 62.
Osatake Takeshi, Shinbun zasshi no sōritsusha Yanagawa Shunsan (Nagoya: Nagoya shidankai, 1919), p. 65.
- 63.
Compare Baker, Circle (1847), p. 45; Baker, Circle, trans. James Legge (1856), p. 12a; Baker, Circle, trans. James Legge (1864), p. 12a; Baker, Chikan keimō, ed. Yanagawa Shunsan, trans. James Legge (1866), p. 12a.
- 64.
For a survey of Yanagawa’s activities, see Nakamura Shinzō, Bakumatsu no senkakusha, kyōdo no ijin Yanagawa Shunsan-ten o oete (Nagoya: Nakamura Shinzō, 1986).
- 65.
Wiliam Alexander Parsons Martin, Kakubutsu nyūmon wage. Rikigaku no bu, ed. and trans. Satō Ryūji (Tokyo: Inada Sahei, 1870).
- 66.
‘List of Classical, Mathematical, and other Books, for the Use of Students’, Calcutta University Calendar, 1874–1875 (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co., 1874), p. 3.
- 67.
‘Books for the Study of the Chinese & Japanese Languages’, Trübner’s American and Oriental Literary Record, 31 (1868), p. 134.
- 68.
‘The Circle of Knowledge’, Saunders, Otley, & Co.’s Literary Budget, 3 (1862), p. 12.
- 69.
William Bell Guthrie, ‘Matthew Arnold’s Diaries, The Unpublished Items: A Transcription and Commentary’, PhD diss. (University of Virginia, 1957), p. 422.
- 70.
Matthew Arnold, ‘General Report for the Year 1863’, in Reports on Elementary Schools, 1851–1882, ed. Sir Francis Sandford (London: Macmillan, 1889), pp. 97–98
- 71.
Yanagawa Shunsan, Yōgaku shishin. Eigaku-bu (Edo: Yamatoya Kihei, 1867), pp. 19a–b.
- 72.
Matthew Arnold, ‘The Function of Criticism at the Present Time’, in Essays in Criticism (London: Macmillan and Co., 1865), pp. 38–9.
Bibliography
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Gardner A. Sage Library
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Hsiung, H. (2017). The Circle of Knowledge: Radical Commensurability and the Deaf Textbook. In: Boehmer, E., Kunstmann, R., Mukhopadhyay, P., Rogers, A. (eds) The Global Histories of Books. New Directions in Book History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51334-8_7
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