Bustānī’s Iliad and Imperialism in the Middle East

Richardson, Evelyn

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51334-8_10

Evelyn Richardson⁷

Part of the book series: New Directions in Book History ((NDBH))

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Abstract

The nineteenth century witnessed the earliest translations of Homer’s Iliad into any non-European languages, amidst the intensification of French and British expansionism. Amongst these, Sulaymān al-Bustānī’s rendering of the poem into Arabic verse, begun in 1887 and published in Cairo in 1904, was hailed by local elites as a decisive intervention in the struggle against European cultural hegemony. This essay examines Bustānī’s translation as a case study of the process by which the Iliad became a text of truly global reach. It traces the formation of a new Arabic discourse on the ancient Greeks in resistance to European cultural imperialism, before describing how Bustānī’s text constituted such a powerful rejection of Eurocentric accounts of ‘civilisation’ and hence the spurious justification of colonialism as a ‘civilising’ enterprise.

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Notes

1.
Sulaymān al-Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs [‘The Iliad of Homer’] (Cairo: Maṭbaͨat al-Hilāl, 1904), p. 69; Munīf Mūsā, Sulaymān al-Bustānī: fī hayātihi wa-fikrihi wa adabihi [‘Sulaymān al-Bustānī: His life, thought and literature’] (Beirut: Dār al-fikr al-ͨArabī, 1998), pp. 26–27.
2.
Al-Hilāl 12 (1903/1904), p. 509. Citations from foreign-language sources are my own translations unless otherwise stated.
3.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, pp. 63–65; Al-Hilāl, 12 (1903/1904), p. 510.
4.
Philip H. Young, The Printed Homer: A 3000 Year Publishing and Translation History of the Iliad and the Odyssey (Jefferson, NC, and London: McFarland & Co., 2003), p. 465; M. L. West, ‘Date of Homer’, in The Homer Encyclopedia, ed. Margalit Finkelberg (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), vol. 1, pp. 197–198.
5.
Gordon Williams, ‘The Genesis of Poetry in Rome’, in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: 2. Latin Literature, ed. E. J. Kenney and W. V. Clausen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 58.
6.
Dio Chrysostom 53.6; Aelian, Var. hist. 12.48.
7.
Grant Richard Parker, The Making of Roman India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 106–107.
8.
Gregory Bar Hebraeus, The Chronography of Gregory Abû’l-Farah 1225–1286, the son of Aaron, the Hebrew physician, commonly known as Bar Hebraeus, trans. Ernest A. Wallis Budge (Amsterdam: Philo Press, 1976), vol. 1, p. 176.
9.
See Paul de Lagarde, ‘A Syriac version of Homer’, The Academy, (October 1871), pp. 467–468; J. Kraemer, ‘Arabische Homerverse’, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 106 (1956), pp. 261–262.
10.
See Barbara Graziosi and Emily Greenwood (eds.), Homer in the Twentieth Century: Between World Literature and the Western Canon (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
11.
Young, Printed Homer, pp. 179, 180, 210, 211; Zara Martirosova Torlone, ‘Vasilii Petrov and the first Russian translation of the Aeneid’, Classical Receptions Journal, 3:2 (2011), pp. 231–232.
12.
Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire: 1875–1914 (New York: Vintage Books, 1989 [1987]), pp. 56–83.
13.
Yeghia Tomajan, Homerosi Egheakan (I Venetik: I Tparani Srboyn Ghazaru, 1843); Arsēn Komitas Bagratuni, Homeri Iliakan (I Venetik: I Vans Srboyn Ghazaru, 1864); cf. Phiroze Vasunia, The Classics and Colonial India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 240 n. 4; and Johann Strauss, ‘Who Read What in the Ottoman Empire (19th–20th centuries)?’, Middle Eastern Literatures, 6:1 (2003), p. 70, n. 80.
14.
See n. 1 (above).
15.
Cf. Johann Strauss, ‘Turkish Translations from Mehmed Ali’s Egypt: A Pioneering Effort and its Results’, in Translations: (Re)shaping of Literature and Culture, ed. Saliha Paker (Istanbul: Bogaziçi University Press, 2002), pp. 108–147.
16.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 71.
17.
For indications of the relevance of European expansionism and imperialism for the Armenian translations, see Victor Langlois, Description of the Armenian monastery on the island of St. Lazarus-Venice, followed by a compendium of the history and literature of Armenia, trans. Frederick Schröder (Venice: Typography of St. Lazarus, 1874), pp. 42–43; Srbouhi Hairapetian, A History of Armenian Literature: From Ancient Times to the Nineteenth Century (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books), p. 527.
18.
For the phrase ‘imperial commons’, see Antoinette Burton and Isabel Hofmeyr, Ten Books that Shaped the British Empire: Creating an Imperial Commons (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2014), p. 4.
19.
Alexander Pope, The Iliad of Homer, 6 vols. (London: T. Osbourne, 1760 [1715–1720]).
20.
Vasunia, Colonial India, pp. 239–251.
21.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, pp. 70–71.
22.
Ediira Dhima and Ermelinda Kashahu, ‘Homer’s Influence on Naim Frashëri’s Poem “History of Skanderbeg”’, Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 4:4(2013), p. 236; cf. Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, pp. 56, 62.
23.
Cf. Joseph Massad, Desiring Arabs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 51–52. For some bibliography on the nahḍa, see Stephen Sheehi, ‘Towards a Critical Theory of al-Nahḍah: Epistemology, Ideology and Capital’, Journal of Arabic Literature, 43 (2012), pp. 269–270, n. 1.
24.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, pp. 189–200.
25.
Nagīb Mitrī (ed.), Hadīyat al-Ilyādha [‘The gift of the Iliad’] (Cairo: Maṭba^ϲat al-Maͨārif, 1905).
26.
Mitrī, Hadīyat al-Ilyādha, pp. i, 106–108.
27.
Dimitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic translation movement in Baghdad and early ‘ Abbāsid society (2nd–4th/8th–10th centuries) (London: Routledge, 1998).
28.
Cf. Pankaj Mishra, From the Ruins of Empire: The Revolt against the West and the Remaking of Asia (London: Allen Lane, 2012), pp. 12–21.
29.
Shmuel Moreh, Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabarti’s chronicle of the first seven months of the French occupation of Egypt, 1798, (Princeton: M. Wiener Publ., 1993), p. 139.
30.
Peter Hill, ‘The first Arabic translations of Enlightenment literature: The Damietta circle of the 1800s and 1810s’, Intellectual History Review, 25:2(2015), pp. 211, 213–214, 216–217, 230, 232.
31.
Muṣṭafa al-Zarābi, et al., Bidāyat al-qudamā ^ɔ wa-hidāyat al-ḥukamā ^ɔ [‘The origins of the ancients and the guidance of the sages’] (Būlāq, Miṣr: Dār al-Ṭibā^ϲa al-ͨĀmira, 1838), 271.
32.
Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 43–59.
33.
Zarābi, et al., Bidāyat al-qudamā ^ɔ, pp. 2–7, 271.
34.
Shaden Tageldin, Disarming words: Empire and the Seductions of Translation in Egypt (Berkeley and Los Angeles: The University of California Press, 2011), pp. 110–111.
35.
Rifāͨa al-Ṭahṭāwī, An Imam in Paris: Account of a Stay in France by an Egyptian Cleric (1826–1831), trans. Daniel L. Newman (London: Saqi, 2004), pp. 71–77, 299; Louis-Philippe Ségur, Histoire universelle, ancienne et modern, 10 vols. (Paris: A Eymery, 1821–1822).
36.
Ségur, Histoire universelle, vol. 2, p. 482.
37.
Ibid., p. 2.
38.
Zarābi, et al., Bidāyat al-qudamā ^ɔ, p. 155.
39.
Cf. Stathis Gourgouris, Dream Nation: Enlightenment Colonization, and the Institution of Modern Greece (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), pp. 122–154.
40.
Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the reign of Muhammad Ali (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. vii.
41.
Zarābi, et al., Bidāyat al-qudamā ^ɔ, pp. 2–4.
42.
Ibid., pp. 65–66.
43.
‘Djāhiliyya’, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition. Brill Online, 2016. URL: http://referenceworks.brillonline.com.proxy.uchicago.edu/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/djahiliyya-SIM_1933?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=djahiliyya, accessed 26 February 2016.
44.
The phrase ‘geometrization of space’ is from Eric Hayot’s On Literary Worlds (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 106.
45.
Muṣṭafa al-Zarābi, et al., Khuṭbat bidāyat al-qudamā ^ɔ wa-hidāyat al-ḥukamā ^ɔ [‘The origin[s] of the ancients and the guidance of the sages’] (Būlāq, Miṣr: Dār al-Ṭibā^ϲa al-ͨĀmira, 1865); cf. Yūsuf Q. Khūrī, A ^ϲ māl al-Jam ^ϲ īya al- ^ϲ ilmīya al-Sūr ^ϲ īya, 1868–1869 [‘Proceedings of the Syrian Scientific Society, 1868–1869’] (Beirut: Dār al-ḥamrā^ɔ li’l-ṭibāͨa wa’l-nashr, 1990); Adīb Isḥāq, Muntakhabāt [‘Selections’] (Alexandria: Maṭbaͨat al-Ādāb, 1888), pp. 274–282; Anon., Tārīkh Iskandar al-Kabīr [‘The history of Alexander the Great’] (Beirut: al-Maṭbaͨa al-Adabīya, 1886).
46.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 25.
47.
Ibid.
48.
Saliha Paker, ‘Translated European literature in the late Ottoman literary polysystem’, New Comparison, 1 (1986), pp. 69, 73–74; Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1789–1939, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 109–111.
49.
Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994), p. 252.
50.
Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (Oxford: Routledge, 1994), p. 54.
51.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 24.
52.
Ibid.
53.
Ibid.
54.
Ibid.; cf. Ernest Renan, ‘Réponse au discours de M. Jules Claretie’, Le Chercheur, 2:17 (1889), p. 135.
55.
See Robert D. Priest, The Gospel according to Renan: Reading, Writing, and Religion in Nineteenth-century France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), pp. 19–68.
56.
Ernest Renan, Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? (Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1882). On the statue, cf. Faraḥ Anṭūn, Ūrūshalīm al-jadīdah [‘The New Jerusalem’] (Alexandria: Majallat al-Jāmiͨa, 1904), p. ii, n. 1.
57.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 69.
58.
Jules Barthélemy-Saint-Hilaire, L’Iliade d’Homère, traduite en vers Français (Paris: Librairie Académique, 1868), p. ix; cf. Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 35.
59.
Cf. Anṭūn, Ūrūshalīm al-jadīdah, pp. b–c.
60.
E.g. Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, pp. 925–931.
61.
Cf. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and The Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972 [1971]), pp. 220–221.
62.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 16.
63.
F. A. Wolf, Prolegomena to Homer, 1795, eds. James E. G. Zetzel, Glenn W. Most, and Anthony Grafton (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985).
64.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 47.
65.
‘Khāridjites’, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed. Brill Online, 2016. URL: http://referenceworks.brillonline.com.proxy.uchicago.edu/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/kharidjites-COM_0497?s.num=0&s.q=kharidjites, accessed 26 February 2016.
66.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 69.
67.
Ibid., p. 193.
68.
Andras Hamori, ‘Reality and convention in Book Six of Bustānī’s “Iliad”’, Journal of Semitic Studies, 23: 1 (1978), p. 100.
69.
Hom. Il. 6, pp. 376–380.
70.
Hamori, ‘Reality and convention’, p. 97.
71.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, pp. 469–470.
72.
Hamori, ‘Reality and convention’, p. 97.
73.
Ibid.
74.
The use of comparison here is my own.
75.
George Chapman, Homer’s Iliad (London: Routledge, 1895 [1616]), p. 90.
76.
Pope, Iliad, vol. 2, p. 473.
77.
Cf. Jasper Griffin, ‘The speeches’, in The Cambridge Companion to Homer, ed. Robert Fowler (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 156–167.
78.
‘ruth, n.’. OED Online. March 2016. Oxford University Press. URL: http://www.oed.com.proxy.uchicago.edu/view/Entry/169174?redirectedFrom=ruth, accessed 3 May 2016.
79.
G. S. Kirk, The Iliad: A Commentary, Vol. 1: books 1–4 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 209.
80.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 6.
81.
Ibid., pp. 168–169.
82.
Ibid., p. 20; cf. Strabo, 14.1.37.
83.
Muḥammad ibn Mukarram ibn Manẓūr, Lisān al- ^ϲ Arab (Cairo: Būlāq, Almo, 1883–1891 [1290]), p. 4435.
84.
Trans. Richmond Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), p. 153.
85.
Bustānī, Ilyādhat Hūmīrūs, p. 438.
86.
Ibid., pp. 438–439.
87.
Joseph Addison’s (1672–1719) phrase: see Addison, Essays in Criticism and Literary Theory, ed. John Loftis (Northbrook, IL: Crofts Classics, 1975), p. 114; cf. Robin Sowerby, ‘Early Humanist Failure with Homer (I)’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, 4:1 (1997), pp. 37–63; Sowerby, ‘Early Humanist Failure with Homer (II)’, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, 4:2 (1997), pp. 165–195; Kirsti Simonsuuri, Homer’s Original Genius: Eighteenth-Century Notions of the Early Greek Epic (1688–1798) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Christopher Prendergast, The Classic: Sainte-Beuve and the Nineteenth-Century Culture Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 128–143.
88.
Cf. Aamir Mufti, Forget English! Orientalisms and World Literatures (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016), p. 250.
89.
Al-Muqtaṭaf, 29 (1904), p. 614.
90.
Ibid., p. 312.
91.
Mishra, Ruins of Empire, pp. 1–11.

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University of Oxford , Oxford, United Kingdom
Elleke Boehmer
University of Oxford , Oxford, United Kingdom
Rouven Kunstmann
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Priyasha Mukhopadhyay
University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
Asha Rogers

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Richardson, E. (2017). Bustānī’s Iliad and Imperialism in the Middle East. In: Boehmer, E., Kunstmann, R., Mukhopadhyay, P., Rogers, A. (eds) The Global Histories of Books. New Directions in Book History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51334-8_10

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51334-8_10
Published: 12 July 2017
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-51333-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-51334-8
eBook Packages: Literature, Cultural and Media StudiesLiterature, Cultural and Media Studies (R0)

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