Abstract
Karst aquifers are the most productive groundwater supplies on Earth, providing 20–25% of the global population water needs. In Puerto Rico, groundwater provides a significant source of drinking water (52%). The northern karst system of Puerto Rico is very susceptible to contamination, serving as route of exposure to human and wildlife in the region. Previous studies of groundwater in that region have shown significant distribution of different contaminants beyond demarked sources of contamination, some of them related to long-lasting health problems. This work develops a spatio-temporal distribution of phthalate contamination in groundwater and tap water in the northern karst region of Puerto Rico and determines the statistical correlation between different factors and phthalate contamination. Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies and statistical models are applied to attain these objectives. Results show that there is an extensive contamination with phthalates in tap water and groundwater samples. Phthalates were detected in 53% of the tap water samples and 6.84% of the groundwater samples. They were detected as mixture components in areas of high urban and industrial development. Results from the statistical models show that the presence of phthalates in groundwater is significantly related to hydraulic conductivity of the aquifers and time. The analysis suggests that land use could be an additional source of contamination to tap water. The extensive spatio-temporal contamination of groundwater suggests that contaminants can persist in the environment for long periods of time and that hydrogeological factors are important factors contributing to the presence of phthalates in karst systems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Bakalowicz, M. 2005. Karst groundwater: A challenge for new resources. Hydrogeology Journal 13: 148–160. doi:10.1007/s10040-004-0402-9.
Center for Evaluation of Risks of Human Reproduction (CERHR). 2006. NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and development effects of Di(2-ethylhexy) Phthalate (DEHP),CERHR, National Toxicology Program, US Department of Health and Human Service, NIH Publication No. 06-4475.
Cordero, J. F., J. Meeker, T. Sheahan, I. Padilla, R. Giese, M. Silevitch, R. Loch-Caruso, D. Kaeli, D., and A. Alshawabkeh. 2012. Case study–Puerto Rico test site for exploring contamination threats. Geo Congress 2012: 3553–3562. doi:10.1061/9780784412121.364.
Cotto, I. 2015. Monitoring phthalates and chlorinated volatile organic compounds in groundwater and tap water. M.S. Thesis, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez.
EGP (Graduate School of Planning of the UPR, University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras Campus). 2014. Puerto Rico 2010 Land Use Data.
Ford, D.C., and P. Williams. 2007. Karst hydrogeology and geomorphology. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Göppert, N., and N. Goldscheider. 2008. Solute and colloid transport in karst conduits under low- and high-flow conditions. Ground Water 46 (1): 61–68.
Green, R.T., S.L. Painter, A. Sun, and S.R.H. Worthington. 2006. Groundwater contamination in karst. Water, Air, and Soil pollution 6: 157–170. doi:10.1007/s11267-005-9004-3.
Giusti, E.V. 1978. Hydrogeology of the karst of Puerto Rico. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1012.
Heudorf, U., V. Mersch-Sundermann, and J. Angerer. 2007. Phthalates: Toxicology and exposure. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 623–634.
Hunter, J.M., and S.I. Arbona. 1995. Paradise lost: An introduction to the geography of water pollution in Puerto Rico. Social Science and Medicine 40 (10): 1331–1355.
Irizarry, C. 2014. Historical assessment of chlorinated volatile organic compounds (CVOCs) and phthalates contamination in the northern karst aquifer of Puerto Rico using GIS. Master’s Graduate Project: University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus.
Latini, G., C. De Felice, G. Presta., A. Del Vecchio, I. Paris., F. Ruggieri, and P. Mazzeo, P. 2003. In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environmental Health Perspectives 111: 1783–1785.
Lugo A.E., L. Miranda Castro, A. Vale, T. del M. López, E. Hernández Prieto, A. García Martinó, A.R. Puente Rolón, A.G. Tossas, D.A. McFarlane, T. Miller, A. Rodríguez, J. Lundberg, J. Thomlinson, J. Colón, J.H. Schellekens, O. Ramos, and E. Helmer. 2001. Puerto Rican Karst-A Vital Resource, U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report WO-65.
Meeker, J.D., H. Hu, D.E. Cantonwine, H. Lamadrid-Figueroa, A.M. Calafat, A.S. Ettinger, M. Hernandez-Avila, R. Loch-Caruso, and M.M. Téllez-Rojo. 2009. Urinary phthalate metabolites in relation to preterm birth in Mexico City. Environmental Health Perspectives 117 (10): 1587–1592.
Molina-Rivera, W.L. 2009. Source, use, and disposition of freshwater in Puerto Rico, 2005. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2009-3080.
National Institute of Health (NIH). 2006. NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and Development Effects of Di(2-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP). NIH Publication 06-4476.
Padilla, I., C. Irizarry, and K. Steele. 2011. Historical contamination of groundwater resources in the north coast karst aquifers of Puerto Rico. Dimension 25: 7–12.
Renken R.A., W.C. Ward, and I.P. Gill, et al. 2002. Geology and hydrogeology of the Caribbean islands aquifer system of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Regional aquifer-system analysis-Caribbean Islands. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1419.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2011. STORET Database Access. Retrieved April 15, 2013, from http://www.epa.gov/storet/dbtop.html.
Veni, G., H. Duchene, N.C. Crawford, C.G. Groves, G.N. Huppert, E.H. Kastning, R. Olson, and B.J. Wheeler. 2001. Living with Karst: A Fragile Foundation. American Geological Institute Environmental Awareness Series 4.
Veve, T.D., and B.E. Taggart. 1996. Atlas of ground-water resources in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Investigations Report 94-4198.
Zack, A., T. Rodríguez-Alonso, and A. Román-Mas. 1987. Puerto Rico groundwater quality. U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report 87-0749.
Zeman, F., C. Boudet, K. Tack, A. Floch Barneaud, C. Brochot, A. Péry, et al. 2013. Exposure assessment of phthalates in French pregnant women: Results of the ELFE pilot study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 216: 271–279.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG
About this paper
Cite this paper
Torres, N.I., Padilla, I.Y., Rivera, V.L. (2018). Potential Exposure of Emerging Contaminants in Tap water from Karst Groundwater Sources. In: White, W., Herman, J., Herman, E., Rutigliano, M. (eds) Karst Groundwater Contamination and Public Health. Advances in Karst Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51070-5_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51070-5_27
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-51069-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-51070-5
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)