Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Complexity and Volume: An Inquiry into Factors That Drive Principals’ Work

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
How School Leaders Contribute to Student Success

Part of the book series: Studies in Educational Leadership ((SIEL,volume 23))

Abstract

The work of contemporary school principals is intensifying in terms of its complexity and volume. Many factors moderate and drive such work intensification. This chapter aims to identify what and how such factors interact to complicate principals’ work. Focus groups and an online survey were used for data collection. Three focus group sessions with eight principals were conducted to help develop and refine the online survey. The survey covers 12 key areas in principals’ work and was distributed among the members of Ontario Principals’ Council. Descriptive statistics, correlation and factor analysis were conducted on survey results. The study showed that there are many key areas that moderate principals’ work, such as administrative duties and responsibilities, jurisdictional policies, external influences, partnerships, and challenges and possibilities. School principals are experiencing increased expectations at work in terms of the number of tasks they are expected to undertake, the duration of time they are required to complete those tasks, and the many challenges they face at their work. Principals’ choice of leadership approaches and practices is subject to factors that exist within and beyond schools. Such factors moderate the way that principals carry out their work and limit their choices in exercising their professional autonomy.

Increased workload is the biggest change in the work of principals.

—Canadian Association of Principals (2014, p. 22).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Boldface shows loadings for each factor and underlines indicate cross loadings. This also applies to other tables on factor analysis results

  2. 2.

    The item “community” has cross loadings on factor 1 and 2 and is deleted in order to enhance the quality of variables for final factor analysis

  3. 3.

    The item School Council is not included in the analysis as its influence originates within the school.

References

  • Alberta Teachers’ Association (ATA). (2009). Leadership for learning: The experience of administrators in Alberta schools. Retrieved from https://www.teachers.ab.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/ATA/Publications/Research/PD-86-14%20Leadership%20for%20Learning.pdf

  • Allan, C., O’Donnell, M., & Peetz, D. (1999). More tasks, less secure, working harder: Three dimensions of labour utilisation. Journal of Industrial Relations., 41, 519–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Applebaum, P. D. (1992). The concept of work: Ancient, medieval and modern. Albany: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Association of Professional Executives of the Public Service of Canada. (2013). APEX 2012 executive work and health survey. Available online: http://www.apex.gc.ca/uploads/key%20priorities/health/2012%20health%20survey%20results%20-%20eng.pdf

  • Auerbach, S. (2010). Beyond coffee with the principal: Toward leadership for authentic school-family partnerships. Journal of School Leadership, 20, 728–757.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, A. B., van Emmerik, H., & Euwema, M. C. (2006). Crossover of burnout and engagement in work teams. Work and Occupations, 33, 464–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Jaafar, S., & Earl, L. (2008). Comparing performance-based accountability models: A Canadian example. Canadian Journal of Education, 31, 697–728.

    Google Scholar 

  • Best, A., & Holmes, B. (2010). Systems thinking, knowledge and action: Towards better models and methods. Evidence and Policy, 6, 145–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bickmore, K. (2011). Policies and programming for safer schools: Are anti-bullying approaches impeding education for peacebuilding? Educational Policy, 24, 648–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blakesley, S. (2012). Juggling educational ends: Non-Indigenous Yukon principals and the policy challenges that they face. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership, 7, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bossert, S. T., Dwyer, D. C., Rowan, B., & Lee, G. V. (1982). The instructional management role of the principal. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18, 34–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, D. (1993). Principals and student outcomes: Evidence from U.S. high schools. Economics of Education Review, 12, 281–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brockmeier, L. T., Sermon, J. M., & Hope, W. C. (2005). Principals’ relationship with computer technology. NAASP Bulletin, 89, 45–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Canadian Association of Principals. (2014). The future of the principalship in Canada: A national research study. Retrieved from http://www.teachers.ab.ca/SiteCollectionDocuments/ATA/Publications/Research/The%20Future%20of%20the%20Principalship%20in%20Canada.pdf

  • Chan, T. C. (2000). Beyond the status quo: Creating a school maintenance program. Principal Leadership, 3, 64–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clandfield, D. (2010). The school as a community hub: A public alternative to the neoliberal threat to Ontario schools. Our Schools Our Selves, 19, 5–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darling-Hammond, L. (1989). Accountability for professional practice. Teachers College Record, 91, 59–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, C., Sammons, P., Hopkins, D, Harris, A., Leithwood, K, Gu, Q., Brown, E., Ahtaridou, E., & Kington, A. (2009). The impact of school leadership on pupil outcomes (Research report RR108). Nottingham: National College for School Leadership: (NCSL).

    Google Scholar 

  • Drago, R. (2007). Striking a balance: Work, family, life. Boston: Dollars and Sense.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eberts, R. W., & Stone, J. A. (1998). Student achievement in public schools: Do principals make a difference? Economics of Education Review, 7, 291–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elmore, R. (2005). Accountable leadership. The Educational Forum, 69, 134–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, D. (2010). The succession challenge building and sustaining leadership capacity through succession management. New York: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finn-Stevenson, M. (2014). Family, school, and community partnerships: Practical strategies for afterschool programs. New Directions for Youth Development, 144, 89–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Firestone, W. A., & Shipps, D. (2007). How do leaders interpret conflicting accountabilities to improve student learning? In W. A. Firestone & C. Riehl (Eds.), A new agenda for research in educational leadership (pp. 81–100). New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flessa, J., Gallagher-Mackay, K., & Parker, D. C. (2010). Good, steady progress: Success stories from Ontario elementary schools in challenging circumstances. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 100, 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullan, M. (2014). The principal: Three keys to maximizing impact. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galway, G., Sheppard, B., Weins, J., & Brown, J. (2013). The impact of centralization on local school governance in Canada. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 145, 1–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gamst, F. C. (1995). Meanings of work: Considerations for the 21st century. New York: SUNY Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hallinger, P. (2011). A review of three decades of doctoral studies using the principal instructional management rating scale: A lens on methodological progress in educational leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 47, 271–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallinger, P., Wang, W., & Chen, C. (2013). Assessing the measurement properties of the principal instructional management rating scale: A meta-analysis of reliability studies. Educational Administration Quarterly, 49, 272–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hands, C. (2010). Why collaborate? The differing reasons for secondary school educators’ establishment of school-community partnerships. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21, 189–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, D. N., Rutledge, S. A., Ingle, W. K., & Thompson, C. C. (2010). Mix and match: What principals look for when hiring teachers and implications for teacher quality policies. Education Finance and Policy, 5, 228–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hauseman, D.C., & Pollock, K. (2014, November). Principals’ work with ICT: A doubled-edged sword. Presented at the University Council for Educational Administration (UCEA) conference, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendriks, M., & Sheerens, J. (2013). School leadership effects revisited: A review of empirical studies guided by indirect-effects models. School Leadership and management, 33, 373–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horng, E. L., & Loeb, S. (2010). New thinking about instructional leadership. Phi Delta Kappan, 92, 66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horng, E. L., Klasik, D., & Loeb, S. (2010). Principal’s time use and school effectiveness. American Journal of Education, 116, 491–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Institute for Education Leadership. (n.d.). Putting Ontario’s leadership framework into action: A guide for school and system leaders. Retrieved from http://live.iel.immix.ca/storage/2/1284580690/FrameworkAction.pdf

  • Jacob, B.A., & Lefgren, L. (2005). Principals as agents: Subjective performance measurement in education (RWP05–040). Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w11463.pdf

  • Kelley, N., & Trebilcock, M. J. (2010). The making of the mosaic: A history of Canadian immigration policy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemeny, A. (2002). Déterminés à réussir – un portrait des bourreaux de travail au Canada. Statistique Canada, 64, 2–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kmetz, J. T., & Willower, D. J. (1982). Elementary school principals’ work behavior. Educational Administration Quarterly, 18, 62–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knapp, M.S., Copland, M.A., Plecki, M.L., & Portin, B.S. (2006). Leading, learning, and leadership support. Available online: https://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Synthesis-Oct16.pdf

  • Koyama, J. (2011). Principals, power, and policy: Enacting supplemental educational services. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 42, 20–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M., & Hallinger, P. (2012). National contexts influencing principals’ time use and allocation: Economic development, societal culture and educational system. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 23, 461–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K. (2012). The Ontario leadership framework 2012: A discussion of research foundations. Retrieved from http://iel.immix.ca/storage/6/1345688978/Final_Research_Report_-_EN.pdf

  • Leithwood, K., & Azah, V.N. (2014). Elementary principals’ and vice-principals’ workload studies: Final report. Retrieved from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/memos/nov2014/ExecutiveSummaryOct7_EN.pdf

  • Leithwood, K., & Beatty, B. (2007). Leading with teacher emotions in mind. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K.A., & Riehl, C. (2003). What we know about successful school leadership. A report by Division A of AERA National College for School Leadership.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2000). The effects of transformational leadership on organizational conditions and student engagement with school. Journal of Educational Administration, 38, 112–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2008). Linking leadership to student learning: The contributions of leader efficacy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44, 496–528.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K., Louis, K.S., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom, K. (2004). How leadership influences student learning: A review of research for the Learning from Leadership Project. Retrieved from http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/school-leadership/key-research/Documents/How-Leadership-influences-Student-Learning.pdf

  • Leithwood, K., Anderson, S., Mascall, B., & Strauss, T. (2010). School leaders’ influences on student learning: The four paths. In T. Bush, L. Bell, & D. Middlewood (Eds.), The principles of educational leadership and management (pp. 13–30). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leithwood, K., Patten, S., & Jantzi, D. (2010). Testing a conception of how school leadership influences student learning. Educational Administration Quarterly, 46, 671–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lomos, C., Hofman, R. H., & Bosker, R. J. (2011). Professional communities and student achievement—A meta-analysis. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 22, 121–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louis, K., Dretzke, B., & Wahlstrom, K. (2010). How does leadership affect student achievement: Results from a national US survey. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 21, 315–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, H. M., & Printy, S. M. (2003). Principals leadership and school performance: An integration of transformational and instructional leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39, 370–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, W. J., & Willower, D. J. (1981). The managerial behavior of high school principals. Educational Administration Quarterly, 17, 69–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinko, M. J., & Gardner, W. L. (1990). Structured observation of managerial work: A replication and synthesis. Journal of Management Studies, 27, 329–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mauno, S., Kinnunen, U., & Ruokolainen, M. (2006). Exploring work- and organization-based resources as moderators between work-family conflict, well-being, and job attitudes. Work and Stress, 20, 210–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Work. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/work

  • Mulford, B. (2003). School leaders: Changing roles and impact on teacher and school effectiveness. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/2635399.pdf

  • Murakami, E., & Pollock, K. (2014). Editorial introduction. Comparative and International Education, 43, Article 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murakami, E., Torenson, M., & Pollock, K. (2014). Expectations for the preparation of school principals in three jurisdictions: Sweden, Ontario, and Texas. Comparative and International Education, 43, Article 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norton, M. S. (2015). The principal as human resources leader: A guide to exemplary practices for personnel administration. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2013). Education at a glance 2013: OECD indicators. Paris: Author. Retrieved from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2013_eag-2013-en

  • Ontario College of Teachers. (2009). Ontario College of Teachers Principals Qualification Program 2009. Retrieved from https://www.oct.ca/-/media/PDF/Principals%20Qualification%20Program%202009/principals_qualification_program_e.pdf

  • Ontario Ministry of Labour. (n.d.). About the Ministry. Available online at http://www.labour.gov.on.ca/english/about/index.php (Accessed 22 September 2014).

  • Pinto, L. E. (2015). Fear and loathing in neoliberalism: School Administrator responses to policy layers. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 46, 140–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollock, K. (2006). Policy as outcome: Inequities generated from unintended policy outcomes. Comparative and International Education/Éducation Comparée et Internationale, 35, 35–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollock, K., & Hauseman, D. C. (2015). School leadership in Canada. In H. Ärlestig, C. Day, & O. Johannson (Eds.), Cross country histories of school leadership research: Focus and findings (pp. 202–232). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollock, K., & Winton, S. (2015). Juggling multiple accountability systems: How three principals manage these tensions. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, published online. doi:10.1007/s11092-015-9224-7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pollock, K., Wang, F., & Hauseman, D.C. (2014). The changing nature of principals’ work: Final report. Retrieved from http://www.edu.uwo.ca/faculty_profiles/cpels/pollock_katina/OPC-Principals-Work-Report.pdf

  • Preiss, B. (2014, October 15) State school principals face impossible choices on building maintenance. The Victoria Age. Retrieved from http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/state-school-principals-face-impossible-choices-on-building-maintenance-20141015-116k7x.html

  • Revised Statues of Ontario. (1990). Education Act, c.E.2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riley, P. (2014). Australian principal occupational health, safety and wellbeing survey: 2011–2014 data. Retrieved from http://www.principalhealth.org/au/2011-14_Exec%20Summary_Final.pdf

  • Robinson, V., Lloyd, C., & Rowe, K. (2008). The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44, 635–674.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J., Freeton, R., & Terriquez, V. (2012). Enlisting collective help: Urban principals’ encouragement of parent participation in school decision-making. In S. Auerbach (Ed.), School leadership for authentic family and community partnerships: Research perspectives for transforming practice (pp. 55–77). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. (1996). The new institutionalism in a postmodern world: De-differentiation and the study of institutions. In R. Crowson, W. L. Boyd, & H. Mawhinney (Eds.), The politics of education and the new institutionalism: Reinventing the American school (pp. 189–2020). London: Falmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. (2011). Administrative approaches to diversity: Imposing and sharing meaning. In J. MacBeath & T. Townsend (Eds.), International handbook on leadership for learning (pp. 1125–1142). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, P. (2012). Education governance reform in Ontario: Neoliberalism in context. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 128, 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheninger, E. (2014). Digital leadership: Changing paradigms for changing times. Thousand Oaks: Corwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shields, M. (2000). Les longues heures de travail et la santé. Statistique Canada, 12, 53–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silins, H., & Mulford, B. (2004). Schools as learning organisations—Effects on teacher leadership and student outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 15, 443–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. J. (2009). Generative leadership: Profile of effective 21st century secondary school principals (Order, NR49647). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304) 833–957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. (2011). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada. Retrieved from http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010-x2011001-eng.pdf

  • Statistics Canada. (n.d.). Table 282–0026: Labour force survey estimates (LFS). by actual hours worked, class of worker, National Occupational Classification for Statistics (NOC-S) and sex. Retrieved from http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim/a05?lang=eng&id=2820026&pattern=2820026&searchTypeByValue=1&p2=35

  • Stone, B., Jabbra, J. G., & Dwivedi, O. P. (Eds.). (1989). Public service accountability: A comparative perspective. Hartford: Kumarian.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, M., Rowe, F., & Harris, N. (2010). Understanding the factors that characterise school-community partnerships. Health Education, 110, 427–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vezina, M. (2002). Évolutions des conditions de travail et santé psychique. Toulouse: Octares.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J. (2010). Facing reality: Including the emotional in school leadership programmes. Journal of Educational Administration, 48, 595–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whyte, W. (1956). The organization man. New York: Simon & Shuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witziers, B., Bosker, R. J., & Kruger, M. L. (2003). Educational leadership and student achievement: The elusive search for association. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39, 398–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Western University, London, ON, Canada

    Katina Pollock

  2. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, USA

    Fei Wang

  3. University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada

    David Cameron Hauseman

Authors
  1. Katina Pollock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fei Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. David Cameron Hauseman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katina Pollock .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Toronto, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto, Ontario, Ontario, Canada

    Kenneth Leithwood

  2. University of Alabama, The College of Education University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA

    Jingping Sun

  3. Western University, Faculty of Education Western University, London, Ontario, Canada

    Katina Pollock

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Pollock, K., Wang, F., Hauseman, D.C. (2017). Complexity and Volume: An Inquiry into Factors That Drive Principals’ Work. In: Leithwood, K., Sun, J., Pollock, K. (eds) How School Leaders Contribute to Student Success. Studies in Educational Leadership, vol 23. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50980-8_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50980-8_10

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-50979-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-50980-8

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation