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From Regulation to Systemic Regulatory Failure

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The Regulatory Regime of Food Safety in China

Part of the book series: Studies in the Political Economy of Public Policy ((PEPP))

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Abstract

Zhou presents a literature review in Chapter 2 on regulation, risk regulation regimes, food safety regulations, the regulatory state and segmentation in China, and the social foundation of the fragmentation of consumer groups. This review reveals a gap in the regulatory research through segmentation approach among the existing arguments concerning the establishment of the regulatory state in the global South in general and in China in particular. This is a gap that Zhou will focus on through the case study of the regulatory regime of food safety in China. Focusing on the regulatory segmentation, this review will also reveal and develop the argument why this segmentation, based on consumer fragmentation, is the crucial reason for the systemic failure of the food safety regime in China.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Spencer Henson and Bruce Traill, “The Demand for Food Safety: Market Imperfections and the Role of Government,” Food Policy 18, no. 2 (1993).

  2. 2.

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  3. 3.

    Robert Baldwin, “Regulation Lite: The Rise of Emissions Trading,” Regulation & Governance 2, no. 2 (2008).

  4. 4.

    N. Scott Arnold, Imposing Values: Liberalism and Regulation (Cary, NC: Oxford University Press, 2009), 120–35.

  5. 5.

    Giandomenico Majone, “From the Positive to the Regulatory State: Causes and Consequences of Changes in the Mode of Governance,” Journal of Public Policy 17, no. 02 (1997): 141–46.

  6. 6.

    Colin Scott, “Privatization and Regulatory Regimes,” in The Oxford Handbook of Public Policy, ed. Robert E. Goodin, Michael Moran, and Martin Rein (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 653.

  7. 7.

    Robert Baldwin and Martin Cave, Understanding Regulation: Theory, Strategy and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

  8. 8.

    David Levi-Faur, “Regulation & Regulatory Governance,” in Jerusalem Papers in Regulation & Governance (Mount Scopus and Jerusalem, Israel: The Hebrew University, 2010), 8.

  9. 9.

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  10. 10.

    Hood, Rothstein, and Baldwin, The Government of Risk: Understanding Risk Regulation Regimes: 12.

  11. 11.

    Stephen D. Krasner, “Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables,” International Organization 36, no. 2 (1982): 185.

  12. 12.

    Arnold, Imposing Values: Liberalism and Regulation: 120–35.

  13. 13.

    David Vogel, “Social Regulations as Trade Barriers: How Regulatory Reform Can Also Help Liberalize Trade,” Brookings Review 16(1998).

  14. 14.

    Alasdair R. Yong and Peter Holmes, “Protection or Protectionsim? EU Food Safety and Wto,” in What’s the Beef?: The Contested Governance of European Food Safety, ed. Christopher Ansell and David Vogel (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 281.

  15. 15.

    Christopher Ansell and David Vogel, “The Contested Governance of European Food Safety Regulation,” in What’s the Beef?: The Contested Goverance of European Food Safety, ed. Christopher Ansell and David Vogel (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 5–10.

  16. 16.

    Arnold, Imposing Values: Liberalism and Regulation: 137.

  17. 17.

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  18. 18.

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  19. 19.

    Levi-Faur, “Regulation & Regulatory Governance,” 2.

  20. 20.

    Ian Ayres and John Braithwaite, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).

  21. 21.

    George L. Priest, “The Origins of Utility Regulation and the ‘Theories of Regulation’ Debate,” Journal of Law and Economics 36, no. 1 (1993).

  22. 22.

    Majone, “From the Positive to the Regulatory State: Causes and Consequences of Changes in the Mode of Governance,” 141–46.

  23. 23.

    Stephen Breyer, Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk Regulation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 3; and Arnold, Imposing Values: Liberalism and Regulation: 120.

  24. 24.

    Julia Black, “The Role of Risk in Regulatory Processes,” in The Oxford Handbook of Regulation, ed. Robert Baldwin, Martin Cave, and Martin Lodge (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 347.

  25. 25.

    Nikolas Rose, Powers of Freedom: Reframing Political Thought (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

  26. 26.

    Bridget M. Hutter, Regulation and Risk: Occupational Health and Safety on the Railways (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).

  27. 27.

    Hood, Rothstein, and Baldwin, The Government of Risk: Understanding Risk Regulation Regimes: 3.

  28. 28.

    Fiona Haines, “Three Risks, One Solution? Exploring the Relationship between Risk and Regulation,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 649, no. 1 (2013): 35.

  29. 29.

    Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (London, Thousand Oaks and New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1992), 19.

  30. 30.

    Ibid., 21–23.

  31. 31.

    Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

  32. 32.

    Black, “The Role of Risk in Regulatory Processes,” 305.

  33. 33.

    Hood, Rothstein, and Baldwin, The Government of Risk: Understanding Risk Regulation Regimes: 9.

  34. 34.

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  35. 35.

    WHO, “Food Safety,” http://www.who.int/foodsafety/en/index.html. According to WHO, food safety risks cover: spread of microbiological hazards, new food technologies, chemical food contaminants, management and supervision on food supply chain, adulterated and polluted food, and food safety standard and regulation, and the role of government in food safety supervision domestically and regional or international cooperation.

  36. 36.

    Donald Rumsfeld, who served as George W. Bush’s Secretary of Defence, had this famous statement on the types of risks: known knowns (such as flood), known unknowns (such as election), unknown knowns (such as earthquake) and unknown unknowns (beyond existing knowledge).

  37. 37.

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  38. 38.

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  39. 39.

    FAO and WHO, “Codex Alimentarius Food Hygiene (Basic Texts),” (Rome: FAO and WHO, 2009), 7.

  40. 40.

    Paul L. Knechtges, Food Safety: Theory and Practice (Burlington, MA, Ontario and London: Jones & Bartlett Learning International, 2012), 34–35.

  41. 41.

    Marion Nestle, Safe Food: The Politics of Food Safety (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2010), 16.

  42. 42.

    NPC of PRC, “Food Safety Law of the People’s Republic of China”.

  43. 43.

    Sumar and Ismail, “Adulteration of Foods – Past and Present.”

  44. 44.

    Charles Albert Browne, “The Life and Chemical Services of Fredrick Accum,” Journal of Chemical Education 2, no. 12 (1925).

  45. 45.

    Sumar and Ismail, “Adulteration of Foods – Past and Present.”

  46. 46.

    David Vogel, The Politics of Precaution: Regulating Health, Safety, and Environmental Risks in Europe and the United States (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2012), 9.

  47. 47.

    Ellen Vos, “The EU Regulatory System on Food Safety: Between Trust and Safety,” in Uncertain Risks Regulated, ed. Ellen Vos and Michelle Everson (London: Routledge/Cavendish Publishing, 2009).

  48. 48.

    Ansell and Vogel, “The Contested Governance of European Food Safety Regulation.”

  49. 49.

    Vos, “The EU Regulatory System on Food Safety: Between Trust and Safety.”

  50. 50.

    State Council of PRC, “Regulation for Major Responsibilities and Personnel of SFDA,” (Beijing: General Office of the State Council (PRC), 2005).

  51. 51.

    General Office of the State Council (PRC), “Announcement on Establishment of Food Safety Commission of State Council”.

  52. 52.

    Peter N. Grabosky, “Counterproductive Regulation,” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 23, no. 4 (1995): 360.

  53. 53.

    Michael Moran, “Understanding the Regulatory State,” British Journal of Political Science 32, no. 2 (2002): 392–94.

  54. 54.

    Marver H. Bernstein, Regulating Business by Independent Commission (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1955).

  55. 55.

    James Q. Wilson, “The Politics of Regulation,” in The Politics of Regulation, ed. James Q. Wilson (New York: Basic Books, 1980), 366–70.

  56. 56.

    David Vogel, National Styles of Regulation: Environmental Policy in Great Britain and the United States (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986).

  57. 57.

    George J. Stigler, “The Theory of Economic Regulation,” The Bell Journal of Economics and Management Science 2(1971).

  58. 58.

    Christopher Hood, “The Risk Game and the Blame Game,” Government and Opposition 37, no. 1 (2002).

  59. 59.

    Michael E. Levine and Jennifer L. Forrence, “Regulatory Capture, Public Interest, and the Public Agenda: Toward a Synthesis,” Journal of Law, Economics, & Organization 6(1990).

  60. 60.

    Ibid.

  61. 61.

    Colin Scott, “Analysing Regulatory Space: Fragmented Resources and Institutional Design,” Public Law (2001).

  62. 62.

    Michel Crozier, The Bureaucratic Phenomenon (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964).

  63. 63.

    Martin Lodge, “The Wrong Type of Regulation? Regulatory Failure and the Railways in Britain and Germany,” Journal of Public Policy 22, no. 03 (2002): 271.

  64. 64.

    David Levi-Faur and Jacint Jordana, “Toward a Latin American Regulatory State? The Diffusion of Autonomous Regulatory Agencies Across Countries and Sectors,” International Journal of Public Administration 29, no. 4–6 (2006).

  65. 65.

    Kanishka Jayasuriya, “Globalization and the Changing Architecture of the State: The Regulatory State and the Politics of Negative Co-Ordination,” Journal of European Public Policy 8, no. 1 (2001); “The New Regulatory State and Relational Capacity,” Policy and Politics 32, no. 4 (2004); Darryl S. L. Jarvis, “Institutional Processes and Regulatory Risk: A Case Study of the Thai Energy Sector,” Regulation & Governance 4, no. 2 (2010).

  66. 66.

    Pearson, “The Business of Governing Business in China: Institutions and Norms of the Emerging Regulatory State”; Hsueh, China’s Regulatory State: A New Strategy for Globalization.

  67. 67.

    Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, “Redoing the Constitutional Design: From an Interventionist to a Regualtory State,” in The Success of India’s Democracy, ed. Atul Kohli (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

  68. 68.

    Navroz K. Dubash and D. Narasimha Rao, The Practice and Politics of Regulation: Regulatory Governance in Indian Electricity (New Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd, 2007); Mariana Mota Prado, “Bureaucratic Resistance to Regulatory Reforms: Contrasting Experiences in Electricity and Telecommunications in Brazil,” in The Rise of the Regulatory State of the South, ed. Navroz K. Dubash and Bronwen Morgan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013); Alison E. Post and M. Victoria Murillo, “The Regulatory State under Stress: Economic Shocks and Regulatory Bargaining in the Argentine Electricity and Water Sectors,” in The Rise of the Regulatory State of the South, ed. Navroz K. Dubash and Bronwen Morgan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

  69. 69.

    Dubash and Morgan, “The Rise of the Regulatory State of the South.”

  70. 70.

    Kanishka Jayasuriya, “Regulatory State with Dirigiste Characteristics: Variegated Pathways of Regulatory Governance,” in The Rise of the Regulatory State of the South, ed. Navroz K. Dubash and Bronwen Morgan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

  71. 71.

    Michael Moran, “Publication Review: The Oxford Handbook of Regulation,” Public Law 4, no. 3 (2011).

  72. 72.

    See for example: Giandomenico Majone, Deregulation or Re-Regulation? Regulatory Reform in Europe and the United States (London and New York: Printer & St. Martin’s Press, 1990).

  73. 73.

    Nicola Phillips, “State and Modes of Regulation in the Global Political Economy,” in Regulatory Governance in Developing Countries, ed. Martin Minogue and Ledivina Carino (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2006).

  74. 74.

    Xue and Zhong, “Domestic Reform and Global Integration: Public Administration Reform in China over the Last 30 Years.”

  75. 75.

    OECD, OECD Reviews of Regulatory Reform: China 2009: 93–94.

  76. 76.

    Pearson, “The Business of Governing Business in China: Institutions and Norms of the Emerging Regulatory State.”

  77. 77.

    Yang, Remaking the Chinese Leviathan: Market Transition and the Politics of Governance in China; Wang, “Regulating Death at Coalmines: Changing Mode of Governance in China,” 31.

  78. 78.

    Dowdle, “Beyond the Regulatory State: China and ‘Rule of Law’ in a Post-Fordist World”.

  79. 79.

    Tang Tsou, Er Shi Shi Ji Zhongguo Zhengzhi: Cong Hong Guan Li Shi Jiao Du Kan [Twentieth Century Chinese Politics: From the Perspectives of Macro-History and Micromechanism Analysis] (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1994), 69–72.

  80. 80.

    Marc Dupuis et al., “Top-Down Mandates and the Need for Organizational Governance, Risk Management, and Compliance in China: A Discussion,” China-USA Business Review 10, no. 5 (2011).

  81. 81.

    Philip Stalley, Foreign Firms, Investment, and Environmental Regulation in the People’s Republic of China (Palo Alto, CA: Standford University Press, 2010), 87.

  82. 82.

    Eswar S. Prasad, “How to Sustain China’s Growth Miracle,” in China’s Reforms at 30: Challenges and Prospects, ed. Dali L. Yang and Litao Zhao (New Jersey, London, and Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pty. Ltd., 2009), 17.

  83. 83.

    Yasuda and Ansell, “Regulatory Capitalism and Its Discontents: Bilateral Interdependence and the Adaptability of Regulatory Styles.”

  84. 84.

    Pearson, “The Business of Governing Business in China: Institutions and Norms of the Emerging Regulatory State” and “Governing the Chinese Economy: Regulatory Reform in the Service of the State.”

  85. 85.

    Hsueh, China’s Regulatory State: A New Strategy for Globalization: 42.

  86. 86.

    Sebastian Heilmann, “Regulatory Innovation by Leninist Means: Communist Party Supervision in China’s Financial Industry,” The China Quarterly 181(2005).

  87. 87.

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  88. 88.

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  89. 89.

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  90. 90.

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  91. 91.

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  92. 92.

    Jing Fang, “The Chinese Health Care Regulatory Institutions in an Era of Transition,” Social Science & Medicine 66, no. 4 (2008).

  93. 93.

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  94. 94.

    Hsueh, China’s Regulatory State: A New Strategy for Globalization.

  95. 95.

    Waikeung Tam and Dali Yang, “Food Safety and the Development of Regulatory Institutions in China,” Asian Perspective 29, no. 4 (2005).

  96. 96.

    Ni and Zeng, “Law Enforcement Is Key to China’s Food Safety,” 1990.

  97. 97.

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  98. 98.

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  99. 99.

    Jamil Anderlini, “Chinese Police Cracked the Case of Adulterated Lamb,” Ftchinese, http://www.ftchinese.com/story/001050268.

  100. 100.

    Sina News International, “Gutter Oil Recycled, Chinese Consume 3 Million Tons of Gutter Oil,” Sina News, http://dailynews.sina.com/bg/news/int/kwongwah/20100319/02311277128.html.

  101. 101.

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  102. 102.

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  103. 103.

    Millstone and Van Zwanenberg, “The Evolution of Food Safety Policy-Making Institutions in the UK, EU and Codex Alimentarius.”

  104. 104.

    Gabriele Abels and Alexander Kobusch, “Regulation of Food Safety in the EU: Changing Patterns of Multi-Level Governance,” in Conference of the ECPR Standing Group on Regulatory Governance (University College Dublin, 2010).

  105. 105.

    Bridget M. Hutter and Tola Amodu, “Risk Regulation and Compliance: Food Safety in the UK” (London, 2008).

  106. 106.

    Zurek, “Social Implications of Europeanisation of Risk Regulation and Food Safety: Theoretical Framework for Analysis.”

  107. 107.

    Elizabeth Fisher, “Food Safety Crises as Crises in Administrative Constitutionalism,” Health Matrix 20, no. 1 (2010).

  108. 108.

    Millstone, “Science, Risk and Governance: Radical Rhetorics and the Realities of Reform in Food Safety Governance.”

  109. 109.

    Ellen Peirce and Marisa Anne Pagnattaro, “From China to Your Plate: An Analysis of New Regulatory Efforts and Stakeholder Responsibility to Ensure Food Safety” (2009).

  110. 110.

    Jianhong Xue and Wenjing Zhang, “Understanding China’s Food Safety Problem: An Analysis of 2387 Incidents of Acute Foodborne Illness,” Food Control 30, no. 1 (2013).

  111. 111.

    Wu and Chen, “Food Safety in China.”

  112. 112.

    Haines, “Regulatory Failures and Regulatory Solutions: A Characteristic Analysis of the Aftermath of Disaster,” 41.

  113. 113.

    Vos, “The EU Regulatory System on Food Safety: Between Trust and Safety.”

  114. 114.

    Fisher, “Food Safety Crises as Crises in Administrative Constitutionalism.”

  115. 115.

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  116. 116.

    Yasuda and Ansell, “Regulatory Capitalism and Its Discontents: Bilateral Interdependence and the Adaptability of Regulatory Styles.”

  117. 117.

    Paul Du Gay, Consumption and Identity at Work (London: Sage Publications, 1995); Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a New Science (New York: Penguin Press, 2005); Yiannis Gabriel and Tim Lang, The Unmanageable Consumer (London, California and New Delhi: Sage Publications Ltd, 2006); “New Faces and New Masks of Today’s Consumer,” Journal of Consumer Culture 8, no. 3 (2008).

  118. 118.

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  119. 119.

    Michael J. Silverstein et al., The $10 Trillion Prize: Captivating the Newly Affluent in China and India (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Review Press, 2012).

  120. 120.

    Goodman, Class in Contemporary China: 7.

  121. 121.

    Ibid.

  122. 122.

    Richard Curt Kraus, Class Conflict in Chinese Socialism (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1981).

  123. 123.

    Renzhong Wang, “Unify Thinking, Conscientiously Rectify Party Work Style,” Hongqi [Red Flag] 1(1982).

  124. 124.

    David, “Between Social Justice and Social Order: The Framing of Inequality.”

  125. 125.

    Xiaowei Zang, “Market Transition, Wealth and Status Claims,” in The New Rich in China, ed. David Goodman (Abingdon: Routledge, 2008); Yingjie Guo, “Classes Without Class Consciousness and Class Consciousness Without Classes: The Meaning of Class in the People’s Republic of China,” Journal of Contemporary China 21, no. 77 (2012).

  126. 126.

    Ann Anagnost, “From ‘Class’ to Social Strata”: Grasping the Social Totality in Reform-Era China,” Third World Quarterly 29(2008).

  127. 127.

    Lu, Dangdai Zhongguo Shehui Jieceng Yanjiu Baogao [Research Report on Contemporary China’s Social Strata].

  128. 128.

    CASS is the leading research institute and think tank under the State Council of PRC.

  129. 129.

    Dagmar Waters et al., “The Distribution of Power within the Community: Classes, Stände, Parties by Max Weber,” Journal of Classical Sociology 10, no. 2 (2010).

  130. 130.

    Stewart, Prandy, and Blackburn, Social Stratification and Occupations.

  131. 131.

    Anthony Giddens, The Class Structure of Advanced Societies (London: Hutchinson, 1973).

  132. 132.

    John H. Goldthorpe, Social Mobility and Class Structure in Modern Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980).

  133. 133.

    Erik Olin Wright, Class Counts: Comparative Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

  134. 134.

    Lu, Dangdai Zhongguo Shehui Jieceng Yanjiu Baogao [Research Report on Contemporary China’s Social Strata]: 9.

  135. 135.

    Lu and Bian, “Inequality in Reform and Social Economy from the Perspective of Citizen Status”; Gao, “Beijing Shi Kunnan Shiqi Shangpin Gongying Zhuiji [Beijing Commodities Supply in Difficult Times].”

  136. 136.

    In some places like Guandong Province, politics have been captured by economic elites locally, see Tony Saich and Biliang Hu, Chinese Village, Global Market: New Collectives and Rural Development (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 176.

  137. 137.

    Goodman and Zang, “The New Rich in China: The Dimension of Social Change.”

  138. 138.

    Lu, Dangdai Zhongguo Shehui Jieceng Yanjiu Baogao [Research Report on Contemporary China’s Social Strata]; Hanlong Lu, “The Chinese Middle Class and Xiaokang Society,” in China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation, ed. Cheng Li (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2010).

  139. 139.

    Choon-Piew Pow, Gated Communities in China: Class, Privilege and the Moral Politics of the Good Life (London and New York: Routledge, 2009); Cartier Carolyn, “Class, Consumption and the Economic Restructuring of Consumer Space,” in Middle Class China: Identity and Behaviour, ed. Minglu Chen and David Goodman (Cheltenham and Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2013).

  140. 140.

    Cheng Li, “Chinese Scholarship on the Middle Class: From Social Stratification to Political Potential,” in China’s Emerging Middle Class: Beyond Economic Transformation, ed. Cheng Li (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2010); Chunling Li, “A Profile of the Middle Classes in Today’s China,” in Chinese Middle Classes: Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao and China, ed. Hsin Huang and Michael Hsiao (London and New York: Routledge, 2014); Eileen Yuk-ha Tsang, The New Middle Class in China: Consumption, Politics and the Market Economy (Hampshire and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

  141. 141.

    David Goodman, “The People’s Republic of China: The Party-State, Capitalist Revolution and New Entrepreneurs,” in The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, McDonalds and Middle Class Revolution, ed. R. Robison and D. S. G. Goodman (London: Routledge, 1996), 225; Gongqin Xiao, “The Rise of the Technocrats,” Journal of Democracy 14, no. 1 (2003): 62.

  142. 142.

    Carolyn and Rothenberg-Aalami, “Empowering the ‘Victim’”; Yan, Hugo, and Potter, “Rural Women, Displacement and the Three Gorges Project”; Zhang and Wan, “The Impact of Growth and Inequality on Rural Poverty in China.”

  143. 143.

    Cai, “The Resistance of Chinese Laid-Off Workers in the Reform Period”; Solinger, “Labour Market Reform and the Plight of the Laid-Off Proletariat”; Wang, “New Urban Poverty in China.”

  144. 144.

    Lu, Dangdai Zhongguo Shehui Jieceng Yanjiu Baogao [Research Report on Contemporary China’s Social Strata].

  145. 145.

    David Goodman, “Middle Class China: Dreams and Aspirations,” Journal of Chinese Political Science 19, no. 1 (2014).

  146. 146.

    Danqing Chen, “Zhiyou Shangji Shehui Meiyou Shangliu Shehui [There’s Only a Ruling Class; No Upper Class,” Nanfang Zhoumo [Southern Weekend], 7 February 2013.

  147. 147.

    Yunxiang Yan, “Food Safety and Social Risk in Contemporary China,” The Journal of Asian Studies 71, no. 03 (2012).

  148. 148.

    George Konrad and Ivan Szelenyi, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979).

  149. 149.

    Victor Nee, “Organizational Dynamics of Market Transition: Hybrid Forms, Property Rights, and Mixed Economy in China,” Administrative Science Quarterly 37, no. 1 (1992).

  150. 150.

    Ivan Szelenyi, “An Outline of the Social History of Socialism or an Auto-Critique of an Auto-Critique,” Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 19(2002): 45.

  151. 151.

    An Chen, “Capitalist Development, Entrepreneurial Class, and Democratization in China,” Political Science Quarterly 117, no. 3 (2002): 408–09; Kellee S. Tsai, Back-Alley Banking: Private Entrepreneurs in China (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 1; Serena Liu, “Toward an Analytical Theory of Social Change: The Case of China,” The British Journal of Sociology 57, no. 3 (2006): 506–07; Dali Yang, “Economic Transformation and Its Political Discontents in China,” Annual Review of Political Science 9(2006): 155.

  152. 152.

    Qiang Li, “The New Changes in the Structure of the Social Stratification in China,” in Social Stratification in China Today, ed. Peilin Li, Qiang Li, and Liping Sun (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2004), 26.

  153. 153.

    Goodman, Class in Contemporary China: 122.

  154. 154.

    Peilin Li and Yi Zhang, “Social Stratification Based on Consumption in China,” in Social Stratification in China Today, ed. Peilin Li, Qiang Li, and Liping Sun (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2004).

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  1. Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, China

    Guanqi Zhou

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Zhou, G. (2017). From Regulation to Systemic Regulatory Failure. In: The Regulatory Regime of Food Safety in China. Studies in the Political Economy of Public Policy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50442-1_2

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