State and Memory Under Sadat: Language, Politics and the 1973 War Discourse in Egypt

Menshawy, Mustafa

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50121-5_2

Mustafa Menshawy⁴

Part of the book series: Middle East Today ((MIET))

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Abstract

The chapter demonstrates how the use of language, with its deliberately and meticulously composed set of themes, assumptions, grammatical forms and myths constructed a new reality on the 1973 War under Sadat. Furthermore, research also indicates how this reality developed sustainable patterns that normalised the event and legitimised the regime and its policies throughout the years following it. Through forensically analysing the official speeches and editorial content published in Al-ahram, the chapter concludes that the war was conceptualised as a series of three related macro-themes: (a) Egypt had a massive and consistent victory; (b) the war as religionised/miraclised; and (c) war victory is personified/personalised. The author adopts both quantitative and qualitative methods to find, group and analyse these themes.

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Notes

1.
Ferdinand de Saussure, Course In General Linguistics, ed. Charles Bally and others, trans. Roy Harris (London: Duckworth, 1983), p. 9.
2.
Fairclough and Wodak, ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’, pp. 258–284 (p. 275 and 276).
3.
Jacques Lacan claims that human conscious is ‘structured like a language’, and Claude Levi-Strauss argues that social relations in ‘primitive’ societies can be treated as if they were linguistic structures. That means that ‘the individual elements of a system only have significance when considered in relation to the structure as a whole, and that structures are to be understood as self-contained, self-regulated and self-transforming identities’, David R. Howarth, Discourse (Buckingham: Open University Press, 2000), pp. 17–18.
4.
For example, in studying the proliferation of discourses related to sex since the seventeenth century, this is Foucault’s explanation: ‘[There was a] multiplication of discourses concerning sex in the field of the exercise of power itself: an institutional incitement to speak about it, and to do so more and more; a determination on the part of the agencies of power to hear it spoken about, and to cause it to speak through explicit articulation and endless accumulated detail’, Michel Foucault, ‘The Incitement To Discourse’, in The Discourse Reader, ed. Nikolas Coupland and Adam Jaworski (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 513–522 (p. 515). See Michel Foucault, The History of Textually: An Introduction, trans. Robert Huxley (London: Penguin, 1978).
5.
See Teun A. van Dijk, ‘Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis’, Discourse Society 4–2 (April 1993). 249–283.
6.
Kathryn Matthews Lovering, ‘The Bleeding Body: Adolescents Talk About Menstruation’, in Feminism and Discourse: Psychological Perspectives, ed. Sue Wilkinson and Celia Kitzinger (London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi: Sage, 1995). See Gender and Discourse, ed. Ruth Wodak (London: SAGE, 1997); Deborah Tannen, Gender and discourse (New York, NY; Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1994); Ann Weatherall, Gender, language and discourse (Hove: Routledge, 2002); Judith Baxter, Positioning Gender in Discourse: A Feminist Methodology (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
7.
Blommaert, ‘The Debate is On’, pp. 1–33 (p. 4).
8.
See Boone Bartholomees, ‘Theory of Victory’, Parameters, 2, 38 (Summer 2008), 25–36; Stephen Peter Rosen, Winning the Next War: Innovation and the Modern Military (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); Christian P. Potholm, Winning at War: Seven Keys to Military Victory (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010).
9.
Colin S. Gray, Defining and Achieving Decisive Victory (Carlisle, PA: US Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, 2002). Gray wrote that his main contention is that ‘(a) wars can be won or lost (admittedly on a sliding scale of completeness, perhaps “decisiveness”); and that (b) that wars’ outcomes typically have a significant power of decision, if not always the decisions intended, even by the victor’, ibid., p. 9.
10.
William C. Martel, Victory in War: Foundations of Modern Military Policy (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
11.
Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 233–234.
12.
Ibid., p. 234.
13.
Boone Bartholomees, ‘Theory of Victory’, http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/Articles/08summer/bartholo.htm [accessed on 20 June 2015].
14.
Ibid.
15.
The Dictionary of Human Geography, ed. Derek Gregory and others (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 1986), pp. 482–483.
16.
Kevin R. Cox, Political Geography: Territory, State and Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), pp. 1–3.
17.
Anthony Paul Cowie, Semantics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 32.
18.
Ibid., p. 33.
19.
Ibid.
20.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 5.
21.
Ibid., p. 1.
22.
Ibid., p. 4.
23.
Samir Farag, who was the head of the Egyptian army’s Department of Morale Affairs, which had organised such trips for journalists to the frontline and which also controlled all forms of publishing on the war, said that ‘not one journalist was allowed into the war zone in the first five days of the event’. The author’s interview with Samir Farag, London, phone, 10 June 2016. The claim was substantiated by statements of other military commanders and confirmed by Makram Mohamed Ahmed, a senior editor in Al-ahram at the time, the author’s interview with Makram Mohamed Ahmed, London, phone, 11 June 2016.
24.
Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard, ‘Women Who Pay For Sex. And Enjoy It: Transgression Versus Morality In Women’s Magazines’, in The Discourse Reader, ed. Adam Jaworski and Nikolas Coupland (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), pp. 523–540 (p. 532).
25.
The author’s interview with Mohamed Lutfi, Cairo, 10 September 2016.
26.
Mohamed Hassanein Heikal, October 73: Al-Silah wa al-Siyasa (Cairo: Al-Ahram Centre for Translation and Publishing, 1993), p. 467.
27.
Ibid., p. 466.
28.
Al-ahram, 17 October, 1973, p. 5.
29.
Al-ahram, 17 October, 1973, p. 1.
30.
Al-ahram, 17 October, 1973, p. 5.
31.
See classified army correspondence published by Heikal, October 73, pp. 486–489 and 583. Dayan wrote in his memoirs that Israeli forces changed the balance of the war completely. As of 11 October till the end of the war, he named this stage ‘victory’ as for his country. See Moshe Dayan: Story of My Life (New York, NY: William Morrow and Inc., 1976, p. 520). Dayan said that the thagra made Sadat realise ‘he had suffered a full defeat’, (ibid., p. 613).
32.
Al-ahram, 19 October, 1973, p. 1.
33.
The author’s interview with Salah Montasser, London, phone, 7 June 2016. Samir Farag, a member of the army’s Department of Morale Affairs, also noted in another interview that journalists ‘were requested to highlight the crossing in their reports’ after the end of the war; the author’s interview with Samir Farag, London, phone, 10 June 2016.
34.
An ‘advertisement’ is used to refer to these announcements which were published in the Al-ahram and which are not dissimilar to promotional advertisements for products. Because it was paid for by a state body who consciously cited its name as the sponsor, an announcement is described as ‘state-sponsored advertisement’ across the whole study.
35.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 5.
36.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1973, p. 3.
37.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 6 and 6 October 1979, p. 6.
38.
Richard Jackson, Writing The War on Terrorism: Language, Politics And Counter-Terrorism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005), p. 33. Jackson made this reference to the 9/11 events.
39.
Ibid.
40.
Ibid.
41.
Al-ahram, 2 October 1980, p. 2.
42.
Al-ahram, 2 October 1974, p. 9.
43.
Al-ahram, 2 October 1974, p. 4.
44.
Blumberg wrote on the thagra which had been managed by Israeli senior commanders such as Ariel Sharon: ‘In a brilliant though risky strike, General Ariel Sharon punched through the Egyptian lines, crossed Suez Canal and trapped the Egyptian Third Army ... The Third Army was faced with surrender. In the North, the Israelis quickly recovered lost ground ... [A]ll fighting stopped with a total military victory for Israel. The United Nations’ call for a ceasefire on October 23 saved Egypt and Syria from further humiliation’, Arnold Blumberg, The History of Israel (Westport, CN; London: Greenwood Press, 1998), pp. 121–122.
45.
Walter J. Boyne, The Two O’Clock War: The 1973 Yom Kippur Conflict and the Airlift That Saved Israel (New York, NY: Thomas Dunne, 2002), p. 275.
46.
Al-ahram, 28 October 1973, p. 1, p. 3.
47.
Ibid., p. 8.
48.
Anees Mansour, Min Awraq al-Sadat [From the Papers of Sadat], Cairo: Dar al-Ma’rif, 2010, p. 235.
49.
Al-ahram, 20 October 1973, p. 1.
50.
Ibid.
51.
Ibid.
52.
Anees Mansour, Min Awraq al-Sadat [From the Papers of Sadat], Cairo: Dar al-Ma’rif, 2010, p. 235.
53.
Al-ahram, 18 October 1973, p. 1.
54.
Anees Mansour, Min Awraq al-Sadat [From the Papers of Sadat], Cairo: Dar al-Ma’rif, 2010, p. 236.
55.
Heikal, October 73, p. 512.
56.
Ibid.
57.
Al-ahram, 20 October 1973, p. 1.
58.
Al-ahram, 20 October 1973, p. 3.
59.
Ibid., p. 2.
60.
Ibid., p. 8.
61.
Ibid., p. 8.
62.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 1.
63.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
64.
Al-ahram, 19 October 1973, p. 1.
65.
Al-ahram, 12 October 1973, p. 1.
66.
Ibid., p. 4.
67.
Ibid., p. 4.
68.
Al-ahram, 15 October 1973, p. 5.
69.
Ibid.
70.
Sa’adeddin El-Shazly, Muzakerat Harb October (San Francisco: Dar Buhouth al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Amrikkiya, 2003), 4th ed., http://download-laws-legal-pdf-ebooks.com/5699-free-book [accessed on 1 May 2013].
71.
Hussein El-Ashy, Khafaya Hisar al-Suez: Miaat Yawm Majhoula fi Harb October 1973 (Cairo: Dar al-Huriyya, 1990), p. 73.
72.
El-Shazly, Muzakerat Harb October, http://download-laws-legal-pdf-ebooks.com/5699-free-book [accessed on 20 May 2013]. The account is supported by historians. ‘The 25th Armored Brigade was ripped apart. Eighty-six of its T-62 tanks were blown up, and only ten tanks escaped to safety. Many APCs, fuel tankers, and ammunition trucks were also destroyed … the Israelis lost only four tanks that had run into a minefield. The victory caused sufficient rejoicing at headquarters’, Walter J. Boyne, The Two O’Clock War: The 1973 Yom Kippur Conflict and the Airlift That Saved Israel (New York, NY: Thomas Dunne, 2002), p. 174.
73.
El-Shazly, Muzakerat Harb October, http://download-laws-legal-pdf-ebooks.com/5699-free-book [accessed on 20 May 2013].
74.
The author’s interview with Nasr Salem, London, phone, 10 June 2016.
75.
The author’s interview with Nasr Salem, London, phone, 10 June 2016.
76.
Chaim Herzog, The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence to Lebanon (London: Arms and Armour, 1984), pp. 259–260.
77.
Ibid.
78.
Baylis Thomas, How Israel Was Won: A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Lanham, MD; Oxford: Lexington Books, 1999), p. 203.
79.
The author’s interview with Makram Mohamed Ahmed, Cairo, 17 September 2016.
80.
The author’s interview with Salah Montasser, London, phone, 7 June 2016.
81.
The author’s interview with Salah Montasser, London, phone, 7 June 2016.
82.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 1.
83.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 1.
84.
Al-ahram, 19 October 1973, p. 1.
85.
Al-ahram, 19 October 1973, p. 12.
86.
Al-ahram, 22 October 1973, p. 1.
87.
Al-ahram, 18 October 1973, p. 4.
88.
Ibid.
89.
Ibid., p. 8.
90.
Caldas-Coulthard, ‘Women Who Pay’, pp. 523–540 (p. 526).
91.
El-Shazly, Muzakerat Harb October (San Francisco: Dar Buhouth al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Amrikkiya, 2003), 4th ed., http://download-laws-legal-pdf-ebooks.com/5699-free-book [accessed on 20 May 2013].
92.
The author’s interview with Nasr Salem, London, phone, 10 June 2016.
93.
El-Shazly, Muzakerat Harb October (San Francisco: Dar Buhouth al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Amrikkiya, 2003), 4th ed., http://download-laws-legal-pdf-ebooks.com/5699-free-book [accessed on 20 May 2013].
94.
Yoram Metal, ‘The October War and Egypt’s multiple crossings’ in The October 1973 War: Politics, Diplomacy and Legacy, ed. by Asaf Siniver (London: Hurst & Company, 2012), pp. 50–66 (p. 62).
95.
Thomas, How Israel was Won, p. 203.
96.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 4.
97.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
98.
Al-ahram, 14 October 1973, p. 1.
99.
Ibid., p. 2.
100.
Ibid., p. 3.
101.
Ibid., p. 5.
102.
Al-ahram, 29 October 1973, p. 1.
103.
Al-ahram, 30 October 1973, p. 1.
104.
Caldas-Coulthard, ‘Women Who Pay’, pp. 523–540 (p. 527).
105.
Ibid.
106.
Ibid. See Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard, ‘Reporting speech in narrative written texts’, in Discussing Discourse, Discourse Analysis Monographs, 14 (1987), English Language Research, University of Birmingham, pp. 149–67, 1987; Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard, ‘On Reporting Reporting: The Representation of Speech in Factual and Fictional Narratives’, in Advances in Written Text Analysis (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 295–308.
107.
Al-ahram, 7 October 1973, p. 1.
108.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 5.
109.
Al-ahram, 22 October 1973, p. 2.
110.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1979, p. 1.
111.
El-Shazly, Muzakerat Harb October, http://download-laws-legal-pdf-ebooks.com/5699-free-book [accessed on 20 May 2013].
112.
The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict, ed. by Walter Laqueur and Barry M. Rubin (New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2008), p. 153.
113.
See the minutes of the Egyptian Israeli military meeting on 1 November 1973, cited in Heikal, October 73, pp. 619–622 (p. 621).
114.
The Israel-Arab Reader, pp. 163–166 and p. 164.
115.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1982, p. 8.
116.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1979, p. 5.
117.
See the issue of Al-ahram, 6 October 1978.
118.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1979, p. 3.
119.
Ibid.
120.
Heikal, October 73, p. 569.
121.
Ibid., p. 570.
122.
Ibid., pp. 572–573.
123.
The Israel-Arab Reader, p. 157.
124.
Ibid., p. 155.
125.
Ibid., p. 152.
126.
Ibid., p. 153.
127.
Abba Eban, An Autobiography (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978), pp. 528, 530.
128.
Heikal, October 73, p. 511.
129.
Kenneth M. Pollak, Arabs At War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991 (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), p. 130.
130.
Herzog, The Arab-Israeli Wars, p. 282.
131.
Heikal, October 73, p. 512.
132.
El-Ashy, p. 168.
133.
Ibid., p. 783.
134.
Ibid., p. 584.
135.
Herzog, The Arab-Israeli wars, p. 283.
136.
Ibid.
137.
Ibid.
138.
Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 538.
139.
Al-ahram, 22 October 1973, p. 2.
140.
The author’s interview with Salah Montasser, London, phone, 7 June 2016.
141.
The author’s interview with Salah Montasser, London, phone, 7 June 2016.
142.
Anees Mansour, Min Awraq al-Sadat [From the Papers of Sadat], Cairo: Dar al-Ma’rif, 2010, p. 238.
143.
The author’s interview with Mohamed Lutfi, Cairo, 10 September 2016.
144.
Al-ahram, 23 October 1973, p. 1.
145.
Ibid., p. 5.
146.
Ibid., p. 2.
147.
Ibid., p. 1.
148.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 4.
149.
Ibid., p. 1.
150.
See Anees Mansour, Min Awraq al-Sadat [From the memoirs of Sadat], Cairo: Dar al-Ma’ref., 2008. The claim was denied by the commander of operations in the same war Abdel-Ghani al-Gamasy in his memoirs, Abdel-Ghani El-Gamasy, Harb October 1973 [The October 1973 War], (Cairo: Dar al-Hayaa al-Misriyya al-‘Ama leil Kitab, 1998).
151.
Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Gramsci and the State, trans. by David Fernbach (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1980), p. 47.
152.
Terry Eagleton, Ideology (London: Longman, 1994), p. 8.
153.
Bourdieu wrote: ‘Utterances are not merely signs to be understood and deciphered; they are also signs of wealth, intended to be evaluated and appreciated, and signs of authority, intended to be believed and obeyed’; Pierre Bourdieu, ‘Language and Symbolic Power’, The Discourse Reader, ed. Nikolas Coupland and Adam Jaworski (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 502–513 (p. 502). See Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, trans. by Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson, ed. John Thompson (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991).
154.
David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding and Selection From A Treatise of Human Nature (Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co, 1921), p. 123.
155.
Ibid.
156.
Ibid., p. 125.
157.
Ibid., p. 128.
158.
Ibid.
159.
Ibid., p. 123.
160.
John Gillis, Commemoration: The Politics of a National Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 3.
161.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 5.
162.
Al-ahram, 11 October 1973, p. 8.
163.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 3.
164.
Al-ahram, 17 October 1973, p. 4.
165.
Al-ahram, 31 October 1973, p. 8.
166.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 5.
167.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 4.
168.
This point will be continued further in Chap. 5.
169.
For further details see Kai Borrmann, Jews in the Quran (Berlin: Books On Demand, 2010).
170.
Al-ahram, 11 October, 1973, p. 5.
171.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 3.
172.
Al-ahram, 23 October 1973, p. 8.
173.
Al-ahram, 15 October 1973, p. 8.
174.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 5.
175.
Ibid.
176.
Al-ahram, 11 October 1973, p. 5.
177.
http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/current-issues/2005/1/10/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%A8%D9%86-%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9 [Accessed on 10 September 2016].
178.
Al-ahram, 12 October 1973, p. 6.
179.
Gamson, Joshua. ‘Messages of Exclusion: Gender, Movements, and Symbolic Boundaries’. Gender and Society 11.2 (1997): 178–99, p. 181. Web.
180.
See Shane Phelan, 1993. ‘(Be)Coming out: Lesbian identity and politics’. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 18:765–90; Spelman, Elizabeth. 1988. Inessential woman: Problems of exclusion in feminist thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1988).
181.
Gamson, Joshua. ‘Messages of Exclusion: Gender, Movements, and Symbolic Boundaries’. Gender and Society 11.2 (1997): 178–99, p. 181. Web.
182.
Hunt, Scott A., Robert D. Benford and David A. Snow, ‘Identity fields: Framing processes and the social construction of movement identities’. In New social movements: From ideology to identity, ed.E. Larafia, H. Johnston and J. R. Gusfield (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1994), p. 197.
183.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 5.
184.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 5.
185.
Al-ahram, 21 October 1973, p. 5.
186.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 8.
187.
Al-ahram, 14 October 1973, p. 8.
188.
Ibid.
189.
Jenkins, p. 14.
190.
Ibid.
191.
Peter Cole, Philosophy of Religion (London: Hodder Education, 2008), p. 54.
192.
Ibid.
193.
Ibid., p. 50.
194.
The author’s interview with Samir Farag, phone, London, 2 August 2016.
195.
Al-ahram, 27 October 1973, p. 1.
196.
Al-ahram, 17 October 1973, p. 8.
197.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 6.
198.
Ibid., p. 7.
199.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 1.
200.
Ibid.
201.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 13.
202.
Al-ahram, 25 October 1973, p. 1.
203.
Ibid.
204.
http://www.youm7.com/story/2015/10/5/42-%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1-%D8%A3%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%B5%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B1/2373892 [Accessed on 2 June 2016].
205.
The author’s interview with Mohamed ’Abdel-Mone’im, Cairo, 20 June 2014.
206.
The author’s interview with Makram Mohamed Ahmed, London, phone, 11 June 2016.
207.
The author’s interview with Samir Farag, London, phone, 10 June 2016.
208.
Al-ahram, 25 October 1973, p. 6.
209.
Ibid.
210.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 4.
211.
Al-ahram, 12 October, p. 5 and 27 October, 1973, p. 4.
212.
Al-ahram, 21 October 1973, p. 8.
213.
Al-ahram, 15 October 1973, p. 5.
214.
Ibid.
215.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 5.
216.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 8.
217.
Ibid.
218.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 5.
219.
Al-ahram, 25 October 1973, p. 7.
220.
Al-ahram, 27 October 1973, p. 1.
221.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 1.
222.
Ibid.
223.
Al-ahram, 12 October 1973, p. 5.
224.
Al-ahram, 15 October 1973, p. 8.
225.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 8.
226.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1979, p. 1.
227.
Ibid., p. 1.
228.
Al-ahram, 20 October 1973, p. 3.
229.
Walter J. Boyne, The Two O’Clock: The 1973 Yom Kippur Conflict and the Airlift That Saved Israel (New York, NY: Thomas Dunne, 2002), p. 11.
230.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 11.
231.
Ibid., p. 4.
232.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 3.
233.
Heikal, Al-Tariq eilla Ramadan, p. 256.
234.
Philip Jenkins, The Great And Holy War: How World War I Changed Religion For Ever (Oxford: Lion, 2014), p. 7.
235.
‘Proclamation of Sultan Mehmed V’, November 1914, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/mehmed_fetva.htm
236.
Philip Jenkins, The Great And Holy War: How World War I Changed Religion For Ever (Oxford: Lion, 2014), p. 8.
237.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 4.
238.
Philip Jenkins, The Great And Holy War: How World War I Changed Religion For Ever (Oxford: Lion, 2014), p. 13.
239.
Ibid., p. 15.
240.
Ibid.
241.
Knut Bergmann and Wolfram Wickert, ‘Selected Aspects of Communication in German Election Campaign’, in Handbook of Political Marketing, ed. Bruce I. Newman (London: Sage, 1999), pp. 455–84 (p. 458), cited in Khatib, Matar and Shaer, p. 87.
242.
Arthur Schweitzer, The Age of Charisma (Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall, 1984), cited in Khatib, Matar and Shaer, p. 87.
243.
Hackman and Johnson, Leadership, p. 113, cited in Khatib, Matar and Shaer, p. 87.
244.
Ibid.
245.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 3.
246.
Ibid., p. 4.
247.
Ibid., p. 5.
248.
Ibid., p. 5.
249.
Ibid., p. 6.
250.
Ibid., p. 7.
251.
Ibid., p. 8.
252.
Ibid., p. 8.
253.
Ibid., p. 9.
254.
Ibid., p. 10.
255.
Ibid., p. 10.
256.
Ibid., p. 11.
257.
Ibid.
258.
Ibid.
259.
Ibid., p. 16.
260.
Ibid., p. 1.
261.
Ibid.
262.
Ibid.
263.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, pp. 1 and 3.
264.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 2.
265.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 9.
266.
Al-ahram, 12 October 1973, p. 7.
267.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 3.
268.
Al-ahram, 14 October 1973, p. 4.
269.
Al-ahram, 31 October 1973, p. 8.
270.
Ihab Kamal Mohamed, Wighat Nazr min Al-Ganeb al-Akhr: al-Sadat fi Ouyoun Israeliya (A viewpoint from the other side, the Lie of October victory: Sadat in an Israeli eyes) (Cairo: Dar al-Huriyya, 2006), p. 213, taken from Sadat’s speech in front of People’s Assembly, Cairo Radio Station, 9 November 1977.
271.
Ihab Kamal Mohamed, Wighat Nazr min Al-Ganeb al-Akhr: al-Sadat fi Ouyoun Israeliya (A viewpoint from the other side, the Lie of October victory: Sadat in an Israeli eyes) (Cairo: Dar al-Huriyya, 2006), p. 213.
272.
Most attempts to singularly define ‘discourse’ have ended up with a vague, convoluted and even contradictory outcome. In addition, these attempts fail to get hold of the fluidity of the term. David Crystal and Michael Stubbs defined ‘discourse’ as a structure of spoken language and not ‘written’ texts. Émile Benveniste exchanged ‘discourse’ with ‘history’. She reserved the latter for the written language and the former for the written and the spoken language inseparably. Roger Fowler, on the other hand, contrasted ‘discourse’ with ‘ideology’. See Howarth, Discourse, pp. 1–10.
273.
Sara Mills even wrote a recent book at such a basic level that it is called simply ‘discourse’. She said: ‘When we try to define discourse, we may resort to referring to dictionaries, to the disciplinary context of the utterance or to terms which are used in contrast to discourse, even though none of these strategies produce a simple clear meaning of the term, but rather only serves to show us the fluidity of its meaning’; in Sara Mills, Discourse (London: Francis and Taylor, 2004), p. 5. Remarkably, there are other books that are entitled the same, ‘discourse’. See Guy Cook, Discourse (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989) and Howarth, Discourse.
274.
Fairclough and Wodak, ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’, pp. 258–284 (p. 278.)
275.
Al-ahram, 6 October, 1978, p. 10.
276.
Ibid.
277.
Ibid.
278.
Ibid., p. 7.
279.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1979, p. 7.
280.
Ibid.
281.
Ibid., p. 18.
282.
Ibid., p. 7.
283.
Ibid., p. 13.
284.
Ibid., pp. 3, 12, 14.
285.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1980, p. 4.
286.
Ibid., p. 10.
287.
Ibid., p. 11.
288.
Ibid., p. 13.
289.
Ibid., p. 15.
290.
Ibid., pp. 1, 6, 4, 5.
291.
Ibid., p. 7.
292.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 13.
293.
Boris Groy, Art Power (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), p. 131, cited in Khatib, Matar and Shaer Khatib, Hezbollah Phenomenon, p. 90.
294.
Khatib, Matar and Shaer Khatib, p. 90.
295.
Claus Mueller, The Politics of Communication: A Study in the Political Sociology of Language, Socialisation and Legitimation (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 129.
296.
Heikal, October 73, p. 584.
297.
Dayan, Story of My Life, p. 538.
298.
Bremer, Stuart A. ‘Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816–1965’.’ The Journal of Conflict Resolution 36.2 (1992): 309–41, 318, 330. Web.
299.
Herbert Spencer, Principles of Sociology, Stanislav Andreski, ed. (London: Macmillan, 1969): 499–571, quoted in Julia Schofield, Militarisation and War (New York, NY: Palgrave, 2007), p. 1.
300.
Ivo Feierabend and Rosalind Feierabend, ‘Aggressive behaviors within polities, 1948–1962: a cross – national study’, Journal of Conflict Resolution September 1966 10: 249–271.
301.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
302.
Ibid.
303.
See Karl Liebknecht, Militarism (Toronto: William Briggs, 1917); Berghahn, 18, 23, 25.
304.
Julia Schofield, Militarisation and War (New York, NY: Palgrave, 2007), p. 1.
305.
http://www.haaretz.com/news/speech-by-anwar-sadat-in-the-knesset-1.45223 [Accessed on 8 August 2016].
306.
http://www.haaretz.com/news/speech-by-anwar-sadat-in-the-knesset-1.45223 [Accessed on 8 August 2016].
307.
Julia Schofield, p. 111.
308.
Julia Schofield, p. 109.
309.
Fairclough and Wodak, ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’, pp. 258–284 (p. 278).
310.
Again, this conceptualisation is based on a structuralism-based reading. Ferdinand de Saussure proposed that ‘language is a system of signs expressing ideas’. These signs result from the association of a sound-image (signifier) with a concept (signified). See Saussure, Course In General Linguistics.
311.
Ibid., p. 9. Saussure argued that the job of the linguist is to take ‘the study of linguistic structure as his primary concern, and relate all other manifestations of language to it’. (ibid.) (Italics are from the source).
312.
Transitivity is concerned with the ‘ideational’ function of language as identified by Halliday and adopted by CDA pioneers. This function can control the flow of events and ‘goings-on’. This flow is ‘chunked into quanta of change by the grammar of the clause’, M. A. K. Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar (London: Arnold, 2004), p. 170. This transitivity system has three components: the process itself (represented by a verbal group), participants in the process (represented in nominal groups) and circumstances associated with the process (represented in adverbial groups or prepositional phrases). There are four types of processes: material (doing), mental (sensing), relational (being) and verbal (saying), ibid., p. 173. In the material processes, there are two participant roles: the actor (the one who takes action) and the goal (the participant who is affected by the processes), ibid., p. 175.
313.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 1.
314.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
315.
Al-ahram, 7 October 1973, p. 1.
316.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
317.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 4.
318.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 3.
319.
Al-ahram, 25 October 1973, p. 5.
320.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 1.
321.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
322.
Al-ahram, 21 October 1973, p. 7.
323.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 5.
324.
‘Grammar—The First Covert Operation of war’, pp. 267–290 (p. 274).
325.
Ibid.
326.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 1.
327.
Ibid., p. 3.
328.
Ibid., p. 6.
329.
Ibid., p. 10.
330.
Ibid., p. 16.
331.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 1.
332.
Al-ahram, 19 October 1973, p. 1.
333.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
334.
Ibid., p. 9.
335.
Ibid.
336.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 1.
337.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 11.
338.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 1.
339.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 1.
340.
Al-ahram, 14 October 1973, p. 1.
341.
Al-ahram, 11 October 1973, p. 1.
342.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
343.
Al-ahram, 25 October 1973, p. 1.
344.
Al-ahram, 18 October 1973, p. 1.
345.
Modality seeks to answer these questions: What is the degree of affinity in the text as expressed through the text? What sorts of these modalities (e.g. modal verbs or adverbs, Subjective or objective) predominant in the text? Modality is about the various kinds of indeterminacy that fall in between what ‘is’ and what ‘is not’; Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, pp. 146–147. Halliday identified two types of modalities; either a ‘proposition’ (statement or question) or ‘proposal’ (offer or command). In the first type of modality, propositions (statements of acts) can be modalised when they indicate degrees of probability (certainly, probably, possibly, which means ‘maybe yes or maybe no’, with different degrees of likelihood attached) or degrees of usuality (always, usually, sometimes, which means ‘sometimes yes, sometimes no’, with different degrees of frequency attached), ibid., p. 147. In the second type, proposals (commands or obligations) can be modulated when they become imperative, either in the varying forms of obligation (required, supposed, allowed) or inclination (determined, keen, willing), i.e. ‘maybe or must be’.
346.
Halliday, An Introduction to Functional Grammar, p. 146.
347.
‘Grammar—The First Covert Operation of war’, pp. 267–290 (p. 275).
348.
Ibid., pp. 267–290 (p. 275).
349.
Al-ahram, 7 October 1973, p. 1.
350.
Al-ahram, 8 October 1973, p. 1.
351.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 1.
352.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 1.
353.
Al-ahram, 15 October 1973, p. 1.
354.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 7.
355.
Al-ahram, 22 October 1973, p. 1.
356.
Al-ahram, 7 October 1973, p. 1.
357.
Ibid.
358.
Al-ahram, 11 October 1973, p. 1.
359.
Al-ahram, 14 October 1973, p. 1.
360.
Al-ahram, 15 October 1973, p. 1.
361.
‘Grammar—The First Covert Operation of war’, pp. 267–290 (p. 274).
362.
Al-ahram, 17 October 1973, p. 7.
363.
Ibid.
364.
Al-ahram, 19 October 1973, p. 8.
365.
Fairclough and Wodak, ‘Critical Discourse Analysis’, pp. 258–284 (p. 278).
366.
Al-ahram, 18 October 1973, p. 1.
367.
Al-ahram, 20 October 1973, p. 7.
368.
Al-ahram, 21 October 1973, p. 1.
369.
Al-ahram, 22 October 1973, p. 7.
370.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 7.
371.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 9.
372.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 9.
373.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 3.
374.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 3.
375.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 11.
376.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 1.
377.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
378.
Ibid.
379.
Richard Hudson, ‘Word Grammar’, in Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics, ed. Keith Brown (Editor-in-Chief), vol. 13 (Oxford: Elsevier, 2004), pp. 633–642 (p. 638).
380.
Al-ahram, 31 October 1973, p. 5.
381.
Al-ahram, 7 October 1973, p. 5.
382.
Al-ahram, 13 October 1973, p. 5.
383.
Al-ahram, 9 October 1973, p. 5.
384.
Al-ahram, 14 October 1973, p. 5.
385.
Al-ahram, 12 October 1973, p. 7.
386.
Al-ahram, 26 October 1973, p. 7.
387.
Al-ahram, 16 October 1973, p. 5.
388.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1973, p. 1.
389.
Al-ahram, 20 October 1973, p. 5.
390.
Cowie, Semantics, p. 32.
391.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 9.
392.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 9.
393.
Ibid.
394.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 9.
395.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 3.
396.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 3.
397.
Ibid.
398.
Ibid.
399.
Al-ahram, 10 October 1979, p. 7.
400.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 5.
401.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 4.
402.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 3.
403.
See Peter van Ham, ‘The Rise of the Brand State: The postmodern Politics of Image and Reputation’, Foreign Affairs, 10 October 2001. Van Ham said that branding is based on emotional appeal and a sense of security and belonging.
404.
See David Aaker, Building Strong Brands (New York, NY: The Free Press, 2005).
405.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
406.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 1.
407.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
408.
Ibid., p. 8.
409.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 8.
410.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
411.
Caldas-Coultard, ‘Women Who Pay’, p. 536.
412.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1978, p. 7.
413.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 9.
414.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1975, p. 1.
415.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1977, p. 1.
416.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 4.
417.
Al-ahram, 27 October 1973, p. 1.
418.
Ibid.
419.
Al-ahram, 24 October 1973, p. 3.
420.
Al-ahram, 23 October 1973, p. 8.
421.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1976, p. 8. and 6 October 1979, p. 5.
422.
Al-ahram, 6 October 1974, p. 1.
423.
Ibid.
424.
Ibid.
425.
Hayden White, ‘The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality’, Critical Enquiry, 1, 7 (Autumn 1980), 5–27.

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Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Westminster, London, UK
Mustafa Menshawy

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Menshawy, M. (2017). State and Memory Under Sadat: Language, Politics and the 1973 War Discourse in Egypt. In: State, Memory, and Egypt’s Victory in the 1973 War. Middle East Today. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-50121-5_2

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