Abstract
The Parkinson’s disease protein leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a multidomain protein with an enzymatic core comprising serine-threonine kinase and GTPase activities and a number of protein-protein interaction domains. While the complex domain architecture of LRRK2 has hampered its structural investigation, there is convincing evidence that LRRK2 can form dimers in solution and in the cell and that the GTPase/ROC domain plays a central role in this process. This chapter focuses on recent studies addressing the molecular nature, the functional significance, and the pathological implication of LRRK2 dimerization.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Lemmon MA, Schlessinger J (2010) Cell signaling by receptor tyrosine kinases. Cell 141(7):1117–1134. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.06.011
Lavoie H, Therrien M (2015) Regulation of RAF protein kinases in ERK signalling. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 16(5):281–298. doi:10.1038/nrm3979
Parrini MC, Lei M, Harrison SC, Mayer BJ (2002) Pak1 kinase homodimers are autoinhibited in trans and dissociated upon activation by Cdc42 and Rac1. Mol Cell 9(1):73–83
Civiero L, Dihanich S, Lewis PA, Greggio E (2014) Genetic, structural, and molecular insights into the function of ras of complex proteins domains. Chem Biol 21(7):809–818. doi:10.1016/j.chembiol.2014.05.010
Bosgraaf L, Van Haastert PJ (2003) Roc, a Ras/GTPase domain in complex proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta 1643(1–3):5–10
Gilsbach BK, Kortholt A (2014) Structural biology of the LRRK2 GTPase and kinase domains: implications for regulation. Front Mol Neurosci 7:32. doi:10.3389/fnmol.2014.00032
Gasper R, Meyer S, Gotthardt K, Sirajuddin M, Wittinghofer A (2009) It takes two to tango: regulation of G proteins by dimerization. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 10(6):423–429. doi:10.1038/nrm2689
Gilsbach BK, Ho FY, Vetter IR, van Haastert PJ, Wittinghofer A, Kortholt A (2012) Roco kinase structures give insights into the mechanism of Parkinson disease-related leucine-rich-repeat kinase 2 mutations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(26):10322–10327. doi:10.1073/pnas.1203223109
Liu Z, Mobley JA, DeLucas LJ, Kahn RA, West AB (2015) LRRK2 autophosphorylation enhances its GTPase activity. FASEB J 30:336–347. doi:10.1096/fj.15-277095
Gloeckner CJ, Schumacher A, Boldt K, Ueffing M (2009) The Parkinson disease-associated protein kinase LRRK2 exhibits MAPKKK activity and phosphorylates MKK3/6 and MKK4/7, in vitro. J Neurochem 109(4):959–968. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06024.x
Civiero L, Vancraenenbroeck R, Belluzzi E, Beilina A, Lobbestael E, Reyniers L, Gao F, Micetic I, De Maeyer M, Bubacco L, Baekelandt V, Cookson MR, Greggio E, Taymans JM (2012) Biochemical characterization of highly purified leucine-rich repeat kinases 1 and 2 demonstrates formation of homodimers. PLoS One 7(8), e43472. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0043472
Deng J, Lewis PA, Greggio E, Sluch E, Beilina A, Cookson MR (2008) Structure of the ROC domain from the Parkinson’s disease-associated leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 reveals a dimeric GTPase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(5):1499–1504. doi:10.1073/pnas.0709098105
Liao J, Wu CX, Burlak C, Zhang S, Sahm H, Wang M, Zhang ZY, Vogel KW, Federici M, Riddle SM, Nichols RJ, Liu D, Cookson MR, Stone TA, Hoang QQ (2014) Parkinson disease-associated mutation R1441H in LRRK2 prolongs the “active state” of its GTPase domain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111(11):4055–4060. doi:10.1073/pnas.1323285111
Gotthardt K, Weyand M, Kortholt A, Van Haastert PJ, Wittinghofer A (2008) Structure of the Roc-COR domain tandem of C. tepidum, a prokaryotic homologue of the human LRRK2 Parkinson kinase. EMBO J 27(16):2239–2249. doi:10.1038/emboj.2008.150
Rudi K, Ho FY, Gilsbach BK, Pots H, Wittinghofer A, Kortholt A, Klare JP (2015) Conformational heterogeneity of the Roc domains in C. tepidum Roc-COR and implications for human LRRK2 Parkinson mutations. Biosci Rep 35(5), e00254. doi:10.1042/BSR20150128
Daniels V, Vancraenenbroeck R, Law BM, Greggio E, Lobbestael E, Gao F, De Maeyer M, Cookson MR, Harvey K, Baekelandt V, Taymans JM (2011) Insight into the mode of action of the LRRK2 Y1699C pathogenic mutant. J Neurochem 116(2):304–315. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07105.x
Lewis PA, Greggio E, Beilina A, Jain S, Baker A, Cookson MR (2007) The R1441C mutation of LRRK2 disrupts GTP hydrolysis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 357(3):668–671. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.04.006
Li Y, Dunn L, Greggio E, Krumm B, Jackson GS, Cookson MR, Lewis PA, Deng J (2009) The R1441C mutation alters the folding properties of the ROC domain of LRRK2. Biochim Biophys Acta 1792(12):1194–1197. doi:10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.09.010
Terheyden S, Ho FY, Gilsbach BK, Wittinghofer A, Kortholt A (2015) Revisiting the Roco G-protein cycle. Biochem J 465(1):139–147. doi:10.1042/BJ20141095
Sen S, Webber PJ, West AB (2009) Dependence of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) kinase activity on dimerization. J Biol Chem 284(52):36346–36356. doi:10.1074/jbc.M109.025437
Meyer S, Bohme S, Kruger A, Steinhoff HJ, Klare JP, Wittinghofer A (2009) Kissing G domains of MnmE monitored by X-ray crystallography and pulse electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. PLoS Biol 7(10), e1000212. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000212
Gloeckner CJ, Kinkl N, Schumacher A, Braun RJ, O’Neill E, Meitinger T, Kolch W, Prokisch H, Ueffing M (2006) The Parkinson disease causing LRRK2 mutation I2020T is associated with increased kinase activity. Hum Mol Genet 15(2):223–232. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddi439
Greggio E, Zambrano I, Kaganovich A, Beilina A, Taymans JM, Daniels V, Lewis P, Jain S, Ding J, Syed A, Thomas KJ, Baekelandt V, Cookson MR (2008) The Parkinson disease-associated leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a dimer that undergoes intramolecular autophosphorylation. J Biol Chem 283(24):16906–16914. doi:10.1074/jbc.M708718200
Jorgensen ND, Peng Y, Ho CC, Rideout HJ, Petrey D, Liu P, Dauer WT (2009) The WD40 domain is required for LRRK2 neurotoxicity. PLoS One 4(12), e8463. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008463
Klein CL, Rovelli G, Springer W, Schall C, Gasser T, Kahle PJ (2009) Homo—and heterodimerization of ROCO kinases: LRRK2 kinase inhibition by the LRRK2 ROCO fragment. J Neurochem 111(3):703–715. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06358.x
Sheng Z, Zhang S, Bustos D, Kleinheinz T, Le Pichon CE, Dominguez SL, Solanoy HO, Drummond J, Zhang X, Ding X, Cai F, Song Q, Li X, Yue Z, van der Brug MP, Burdick DJ, Gunzner-Toste J, Chen H, Liu X, Estrada AA, Sweeney ZK, Scearce-Levie K, Moffat JG, Kirkpatrick DS, Zhu H (2012) Ser1292 autophosphorylation is an indicator of LRRK2 kinase activity and contributes to the cellular effects of PD mutations. Sci Transl Med 4(164), 164ra161. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3004485
Cirnaru MD, Marte A, Belluzzi E, Russo I, Gabrielli M, Longo F, Arcuri L, Murru L, Bubacco L, Matteoli M, Fedele E, Sala C, Passafaro M, Morari M, Greggio E, Onofri F, Piccoli G (2014) LRRK2 kinase activity regulates synaptic vesicle trafficking and neurotransmitter release through modulation of LRRK2 macro-molecular complex. Front Mol Neurosci 7:49. doi:10.3389/fnmol.2014.00049
Rudenko IN, Kaganovich A, Hauser DN, Beylina A, Chia R, Ding J, Maric D, Jaffe H, Cookson MR (2012) The G2385R variant of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 associated with Parkinson’s disease is a partial loss-of-function mutation. Biochem J 446(1):99–111. doi:10.1042/BJ20120637
Lu B, Zhai Y, Wu C, Pang X, Xu Z, Sun F (2010) Expression, purification and preliminary biochemical studies of the N-terminal domain of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2. Biochim Biophys Acta 1804(9):1780–1784. doi:10.1016/j.bbapap.2010.05.004
Ito G, Iwatsubo T (2012) Re-examination of the dimerization state of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2: predominance of the monomeric form. Biochem J 441(3):987–994. doi:10.1042/BJ20111215
James NG, Digman MA, Gratton E, Barylko B, Ding X, Albanesi JP, Goldberg MS, Jameson DM (2012) Number and brightness analysis of LRRK2 oligomerization in live cells. Biophys J 102(11):L41–L43. doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2012.04.046
Mamais A, Chia R, Beilina A, Hauser DN, Hall C, Lewis PA, Cookson MR, Bandopadhyay R (2014) Arsenite stress down-regulates phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), promoting self-association and cellular redistribution. J Biol Chem 289(31):21386–21400. doi:10.1074/jbc.M113.528463
Kett LR, Boassa D, Ho CC, Rideout HJ, Hu J, Terada M, Ellisman M, Dauer WT (2012) LRRK2 Parkinson disease mutations enhance its microtubule association. Hum Mol Genet 21(4):890–899. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddr526
Berger Z, Smith KA, Lavoie MJ (2010) Membrane localization of LRRK2 is associated with increased formation of the highly active LRRK2 dimer and changes in its phosphorylation. Biochemistry 49(26):5511–5523. doi:10.1021/bi100157u
Schapansky J, Nardozzi JD, Felizia F, LaVoie MJ (2014) Membrane recruitment of endogenous LRRK2 precedes its potent regulation of autophagy. Hum Mol Genet 23(16):4201–4214. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddu138
Tong Y, Yamaguchi H, Giaime E, Boyle S, Kopan R, Kelleher RJ 3rd, Shen J (2010) Loss of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 causes impairment of protein degradation pathways, accumulation of alpha-synuclein, and apoptotic cell death in aged mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(21):9879–9884. doi:10.1073/pnas.1004676107
Tong Y, Giaime E, Yamaguchi H, Ichimura T, Liu Y, Si H, Cai H, Bonventre JV, Shen J (2012) Loss of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 causes age-dependent bi-phasic alterations of the autophagy pathway. Mol Neurodegener 7:2. doi:10.1186/1750-1326-7-2
Manzoni C, Mamais A, Dihanich S, Abeti R, Soutar MP, Plun-Favreau H, Giunti P, Tooze SA, Bandopadhyay R, Lewis PA (2013) Inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity stimulates macroautophagy. Biochim Biophys Acta 1833(12):2900–2910. doi:10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.07.020
Nichols RJ, Dzamko N, Morrice NA, Campbell DG, Deak M, Ordureau A, Macartney T, Tong Y, Shen J, Prescott AR, Alessi DR (2010) 14-3-3 binding to LRRK2 is disrupted by multiple Parkinson’s disease-associated mutations and regulates cytoplasmic localization. Biochem J 430(3):393–404. doi:10.1042/BJ20100483
Holderfield M, Nagel TE, Stuart DD (2014) Mechanism and consequences of RAF kinase activation by small-molecule inhibitors. Br J Cancer 111(4):640–645. doi:10.1038/bjc.2014.139
Dzamko N, Deak M, Hentati F, Reith AD, Prescott AR, Alessi DR, Nichols RJ (2010) Inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity leads to dephosphorylation of Ser(910)/Ser(935), disruption of 14-3-3 binding and altered cytoplasmic localization. Biochem J 430(3):405–413. doi:10.1042/BJ20100784
Li X, Wang QJ, Pan N, Lee S, Zhao Y, Chait BT, Yue Z (2011) Phosphorylation-dependent 14-3-3 binding to LRRK2 is impaired by common mutations of familial Parkinson’s disease. PLoS One 6(3), e17153. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017153
Fu H, Subramanian RR, Masters SC (2000) 14-3-3 proteins: structure, function, and regulation. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 40:617–647. doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.40.1.617
Bastea LI, Doppler H, Pearce SE, Durand N, Spratley SJ, Storz P (2013) Protein kinase D-mediated phosphorylation at Ser99 regulates localization of p21-activated kinase 4. Biochem J 455(2):251–260. doi:10.1042/BJ20130281
Lobbestael E, Zhao J, Rudenko IN, Beylina A, Gao F, Wetter J, Beullens M, Bollen M, Cookson MR, Baekelandt V, Nichols RJ, Taymans JM (2013) Identification of protein phosphatase 1 as a regulator of the LRRK2 phosphorylation cycle. Biochem J 456(1):119–128. doi:10.1042/BJ20121772
Chia R, Haddock S, Beilina A, Rudenko IN, Mamais A, Kaganovich A, Li Y, Kumaran R, Nalls MA, Cookson MR (2014) Phosphorylation of LRRK2 by casein kinase 1alpha regulates trans-Golgi clustering via differential interaction with ARHGEF7. Nat Commun 5:5827. doi:10.1038/ncomms6827
Cookson MR (2010) The role of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) in Parkinson’s disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 11(12):791–797. doi:10.1038/nrn2935
Greggio E, Cookson MR (2009) Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutations and Parkinson’s disease: three questions. ASN Neuro 1(1):13–24. doi:10.1042/AN20090007
Ray S, Bender S, Kang S, Lin R, Glicksman MA, Liu M (2014) The Parkinson disease-linked LRRK2 protein mutation I2020T stabilizes an active state conformation leading to increased kinase activity. J Biol Chem 289(19):13042–13053. doi:10.1074/jbc.M113.537811
Doggett EA, Zhao J, Mork CN, Hu D, Nichols RJ (2012) Phosphorylation of LRRK2 serines 955 and 973 is disrupted by Parkinson’s disease mutations and LRRK2 pharmacological inhibition. J Neurochem 120(1):37–45. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2011.07537.x
Beilina A, Rudenko IN, Kaganovich A, Civiero L, Chau H, Kalia SK, Kalia LV, Lobbestael E, Chia R, Ndukwe K, Ding J, Nalls MA, Olszewski M, Hauser DN, Kumaran R, Lozano AM, Baekelandt V, Greene LE, Taymans JM, Greggio E, Cookson MR (2014) Unbiased screen for interactors of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 supports a common pathway for sporadic and familial Parkinson disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111(7):2626–2631. doi:10.1073/pnas.1318306111
Ohta E, Kawakami F, Kubo M, Obata F (2013) Dominant-negative effects of LRRK2 heterodimers: a possible mechanism of neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease caused by LRRK2 I2020T mutation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 430(2):560–566. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2012.11.113
Miyajima T, Ohta E, Kawada H, Maekawa T, Obata F (2015) The mouse/human cross-species heterodimer of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2: possible significance in the transgenic model mouse of Parkinson’s disease. Neurosci Lett 588:142–146. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2015.01.003
Liu M, Kang S, Ray S, Jackson J, Zaitsev AD, Gerber SA, Cuny GD, Glicksman MA (2011) Kinetic, mechanistic, and structural modeling studies of truncated wild-type leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 and the G2019S mutant. Biochemistry 50(43):9399–9408. doi:10.1021/bi201173d
Gilligan PJ (2015) Inhibitors of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2): progress and promise for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Curr Top Med Chem 15(10):927–938
Fuji RN, Flagella M, Baca M, Baptista MA, Brodbeck J, Chan BK, Fiske BK, Honigberg L, Jubb AM, Katavolos P, Lee DW, Lewin-Koh SC, Lin T, Liu X, Liu S, Lyssikatos JP, O’Mahony J, Reichelt M, Roose-Girma M, Sheng Z, Sherer T, Smith A, Solon M, Sweeney ZK, Tarrant J, Urkowitz A, Warming S, Yaylaoglu M, Zhang S, Zhu H, Estrada AA, Watts RJ (2015) Effect of selective LRRK2 kinase inhibition on nonhuman primate lung. Sci Transl Med 7(273):273ra215. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaa3634
Herzig MC, Kolly C, Persohn E, Theil D, Schweizer T, Hafner T, Stemmelen C, Troxler TJ, Schmid P, Danner S, Schnell CR, Mueller M, Kinzel B, Grevot A, Bolognani F, Stirn M, Kuhn RR, Kaupmann K, van der Putten PH, Rovelli G, Shimshek DR (2011) LRRK2 protein levels are determined by kinase function and are crucial for kidney and lung homeostasis in mice. Hum Mol Genet 20(21):4209–4223. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddr348
Zhao J, Molitor TP, Langston JW, Nichols RJ (2015) LRRK2 dephosphorylation increases its ubiquitination. Biochem J 469(1):107–120. doi:10.1042/BJ20141305
Daniels RH, Zenke FT, Bokoch GM (1999) alphaPix stimulates p21-activated kinase activity through exchange factor-dependent and -independent mechanisms. J Biol Chem 274(10):6047–6050
Loiarro M, Capolunghi F, Fanto N, Gallo G, Campo S, Arseni B, Carsetti R, Carminati P, De Santis R, Ruggiero V, Sette C (2007) Pivotal advance: inhibition of MyD88 dimerization and recruitment of IRAK1 and IRAK4 by a novel peptidomimetic compound. J Leukoc Biol 82(4):801–810. doi:10.1189/jlb.1206746
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Italian Telethon Foundation (grant n. GGP12237) and the Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s disease research.
Conflict of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Civiero, L., Russo, I., Bubacco, L., Greggio, E. (2017). Molecular Insights and Functional Implication of LRRK2 Dimerization. In: Rideout, H. (eds) Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 (LRRK2). Advances in Neurobiology, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49969-7_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49969-7_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-49967-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-49969-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)