Abstract
Uncounted, and usually unobserved, numbers of the animals that live in the oceans find themselves snared, trapped or entangled in lost fishing gear, monofilament line, nets, rope, plastic packaging and packing bands from crates, or become hooked on discarded fishing gear, or ingest human marine debris. Seals, sea lions and walrus (the pinnipeds) seem particularly susceptible to entanglement in marine debris—their exploratory natures may make this more likely, or perhaps they come upon plastic waste and rope on the shoreline to a greater extent than the other fully aquatic mammals. Pinnipeds meeting with plastic, either in the sea or on the shoreline, may carry debris wrapped around themselves for long periods. They often die as a result, sometimes from major chronic wounds. Although a wide range of the global species of seals can be affected by marine debris, some species are much more significantly affected than others. The key seal species affected by entanglement are monk seals, fur seals and California sea lions. Seals which become entangled or who ingest marine debris may be subjected to distress, pain, trauma, infection, skin and muscle lesions and compromised ability to move, feed and carry out normal behaviour. For these reasons marine debris has the capacity to present a significant and global issue with respect to animal welfare, as well as to more immediately apparent concerns regarding habitats and the quality of the marine environment.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Allen BM, Angliss RP (2014) National Fur Seal (Callorhinus ursinus): Eastern Pacific Stock; Annual Human-Caused Mortality and Serious Injury National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/sars/pdf/stocks/alaska/2014/ak2014_ northernfurseal- cp.pdf. Accessed 20 Oct 2016
Allen R, Jarvis D, Sayer S, Mills C (2012) Entanglement of grey seals Halichoerus grypus at a haul out site in Cornwall, UK. Mar Pollut Bull 64:2815–2819
Arnould JPY, Croxall JP (1995) Trends in entanglement of Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) in man-made debris at South Georgia. Mar Pollut Bull 30(11):707–712
Barnes DKA (2005) Remote islands reveal rapid rise of southern hemisphere, sea debris. Sci World J 5:915–921
Barnes DKA, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009) Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philos Trans R Soc B 364(1526):1985–1998
Boland RC, Donohue MJ (2003) Marine debris accumulation in the nearshore marine habitat of the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, Monachus schauinslandi 1999–2001. Mar Pollut Bull 46:1385–1394
Boren LJ, Morrissey M, Muller CG, Gemmell NJ (2006) Entanglement of New Zealand fur seals in man-made debris at Kaikoura, New Zealand. Mar Pollut Bull 52:442–446
Campagna C, Falabella V, Lewis M (2007) Entanglement of southern elephant seals in squid fishing gear. Mar Mamm Sci 23(2):414–418
Cole T, Hartley D, Garron M (2006) Mortality and serious injury determinations for baleen whale stocks along the Eastern Seaboard of the United States, 2000–2004. Northeast Fisheries Science Center Reference Document 06-04
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2012) Impacts of marine debris on biodiversity: current status and potential solutions. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel—GEF (2012), Montreal. Technical series no. 67. ISBN 92-9225-444-8
Coupland RM (1992) The Red Cross classification of war wounds: the E.X.C.F.V.M. scoring system. World J Surg 16(5):910–917
Dau BK, Gilardi KV, Gulland FM, Higgins A, Holcomb JB, Leger JS, Ziccardi MH (2009) Fishing gear-related injury in California marine wildlife. J Wildl Dis 45(2):355–362
Derraik JGB (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 44(9):842–852
Donohue MJ, Foley DG (2007) Remote sensing reveals links among the endangered Hawaiian monk seal, marine debris, and El Niño. Mar Mamm Sci 23(2):468–473
Fowler CW (1987) Marine debris and northern fur seals: a case study. Mar Pollut Bull 18(6b):326–335
Hanni KD, Pyle P (2000) Entanglement of pinnipeds in synthetic materials at south-east Farallon Island, California, 1976–1998. Mar Pollut Bull 40(12):1076–1081
Harcourt R, Aurioles D, Sanchez J (1994) Entanglement of California sea lions at Los Islotes, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Mar Mamm Sci 10:122–125
Hekman R, Osinga N (2010) Stichting Zeehondencreche Lenie t’ Hart 2010. http://www.zeehondencreche.nl/wb/pages/wetensch.-onderzoek/wetenschappelijke-publicaties.php. Accessed 2/4/16
Henderson JR (2001) A pre- and post-MARPOL Annex V summary of Hawaiian monk seal entanglements and marine debris accumulation in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands, 1982–1998. Mar Pollut Bull 42:584–589
Hofmeyr GJG, De Maine M, Bester MN, Kirkman SP, Pistorius PA, Makhado AB (2002) Entanglement of pinnipeds at Marion Island, Southern Ocean: 1991–2001. Aust Mammal 24:141–146
Hofmeyr GJ, Bester M, Kirkman SP, Lydersen C, Kovacs KM (2006) Entanglement of Antarctic fur seals at Bouvetøya, Southern Ocean. Mar Pollut Bull 52:1077–1080
International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) (2008) Annual report—Ocean Conservancy 2008. http://www.oceanconservancy.org/our-work/marine-debris/2016-data-release/2016-data-release-1.pdf. Accessed 27 June 2016
International Maritime Organization (IMO) (2016) International convention for the prevention of pollution from ships. http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/Pages/Default.aspx. Accessed 18 Oct 2016
Karamanlidis AA (2000) Monitoring human and Mediterranean monk seal activity in the National Marine Park of Alonnissos and Northern Sporades, Greece. Monachus Guardian 3(1). http://www.monachus-guardian.org/mguard05/05covsto.htm. Accessed 3 Apr 17
Lawson TJ, Wilcox C, Johns K, Dann P, Hardesty BD (2015) Characteristics of marine debris that entangle Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) in southern Australia. Mar Pollut Bull 98(2015):354–357
Marine Conservation Society (MCS) (2007) Beachwatch 2006. The 14th annual beach litter survey report. Marine Conservation Society, Ross on Wye. https://www.mcsuk.org/press/view/181 Accessed 6 Apr 16
MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) International Maritime Organization (1973). http://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Prevention-of-Pollution-from-Ships-(MARPOL).aspx. Accessed 27 June 2016
McIntosh RR, Kirkwood R, Sutherland DR, Dann P (2015) Drivers and annual estimates of marine wildlife entanglement rates: a long-term case study with Australian fur seals. Mar Pollut Bull 101(2015):716–725
Moore MJ, van der Hoop J, Barco SG (2013) Criteria and case definitions for serious injury and death of pinnipeds and cetaceans caused by anthropogenic trauma. Dis Aquat Org 103(3):229–232
New World Encyclopedia (2016) History of fishing line. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Fishing_line. Accessed 18 Oct 2016
NOAA (2012) Marine mammal entanglement: pinniped. https://alaskafisheries.noaa.gov/pr/pinniped-entanglement. Accessed 12 July 2016
NOAA/NMFS (2007) Serious injury technical workshop, Seattle, 2007. Severity indexes page 7. http://www.nmfs.noa,a.gov/pr/pdfs/interactions/serious_injury_techmemo2008.pdf. Accessed 2 Apr 2016
NRC National Research Council (2008) Tackling marine debris in the 21st century. Committee on the effectiveness of international and national measures to prevent and reduce marine debris and its impacts. http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/noaa_documents/NOAA_related_docs/marine_debris_2008.pdf. Accessed 2 Apr 2016
Page B, Welling A, Chambellant M, Goldsworthy SD, Dorr T, van Veen R (2003) Population status and breeding season chronology of Heard Island fur seals. Polar Biol 26:219–224
Page B, McKenzie J, McIntosh R, Baylis A, Morrissey A, Calvert N, Haas T, Berris M, Dowie D, Shaughnessy PD, Goldsworthy SD (2004) Entanglement of Australian sea lions and New Zealand fur seals in lost fishing gear and other marine debris before and after Government and industry attempts to reduce the problem. Mar Pollut Bull 49:33–42
Pearson E, Mellish S, Sanders B, Litchfield C (2014) Marine wildlife entanglement: assessing knowledge, attitudes, and relevant behaviour in the Australian community. Mar Pollut Bull 89:136–148
Pemberton D, Brothers NP, Kirkwood R (1992) Entanglement of Australian fur seals in man-made debris in Tasmanian waters. Wildl Res 19:151–159
Raum-Suryan KL, Jemison LA, Pitcher KW (2009) Entanglement of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in marine debris: identifying causes and finding solutions. Mar Pollut Bull 58:1487–1495
Sandoe P, Simonsen HB (1992) Assessing animal welfare: where does science end and philosophy begin? Anim Welf 1:257–267
Santos IR, Friedrich AC, Barretto FP (2005) Overseas garbage pollution on beaches of northeast Brazil. Mar Pollut Bull 50(7):782–786
Sayer S, Williams K (2015) Ghost gear in Cornwall, UK 2014 to 2015. World Animal Protection Commissioned Report
Sayer S, Hockley K, Allen R (2015) Entanglement and its effects on grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) 2000 to 2013. World Animal Protection Commissioned Report, Cornwall and North Devon, UK
Shaughnessy PD (1980) Entanglement of cape fur seals with man-made objects. Mar Pollut Bull 11:332–336
Sheavly SB (2007) National Marine Debris Monitoring Program: Final Program Report, Data Analysis and Summary. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by Ocean Conservancy, Grant Number X83053401-02. 76 pp
Spraker TR, Lander ME (2010) Causes of mortality in northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus), St. Paul Island, Probilof Islands, Alaska, 1986–2006. J Wildl Dis 46(2):450–473
Stewart BS, Yochem PK (1987) Entanglement of pinnipeds in synthetic debris and fishing net and line fragments at San Nicolas and San Miguel Islands, California, 1978–1986. Mar Pollut Bull 18:336–339
United Nations (1972) Declaration of the United Nations conference on the human environment, Stockholm, 5–16 June 1972. http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp?documentid=97&articleid=1503. Accessed 18 Oct 2016
United Nations (2005) Environment programme, UNEP annual report 2005. http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=67&ArticleID=5125&l=en. Accessed 18 Oct 2016
Waluda CM, Staniland IJ (2013) Entanglement of Antarctic fur seals at Bird Island, South Georgia. Mar Pollut Bull 74:244–252
Wang J, Zhi Tan Z, Peng J, Qiu Q, Li M (2016) The behaviors of microplastics in the marine environment. Mar Environ Res 113:7–17
Wilcox C, Mallos NJ, Leonard GH, Rodriguez A, Hardesty BD (2016) Using expert elicitation to estimate the impacts of plastic pollution on marine wildlife. Mar Policy 65(2016):107–114
Williams R, Ashe E, O’Hara PD (2011) Marine mammals and debris in coastal waters of British Columbia, Canada. Mar Pollut Bull 62(6):1303–1316
World Animal Protection WAP (2016) Global ghost gear initiative. http://www.ghostgear.org. Accessed 18 Oct 2016
World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) (2012) Marine debris: a global picture of the impact on animal welfare and of animal-focused solutions. In: Butterworth A, Clegg I, Bass C (eds). WSPA International, London. http://oceansandplastics.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REP_WSPA_2012.pdf. Accessed 27 June 2016
Zalasiewicz J et al (2016) The geological cycle of plastics and their use as a stratigraphic indicator of the Anthropocene. Anthropocene 13:4–17. doi:10.1016/j.ancene.2016.01.002
Zavadil PA, Robson BW, Lestenkof AD, Holser R, Malavansky A (2007) Northern Fur Seal Entanglement Studies on the Pribilof Islands in 2006. For National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Prescott Stranding Grant Program and Alaska Regional Stranding Network Coordinator. http://doc.nprb.org/web/research/research%20pubs/outside_publications/733_entanglement.pdf. Accessed 2 Apr 2016
Zavala-González A, Mellink E (1997) Entanglement of California sea lions, Zalophus californianus californianus, in fishing gear in the central-northern part of the Gulf of California, Mexico. Fish Bull 95:180–184
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Butterworth, A., Sayer, S. (2017). The Welfare Impact on Pinnipeds of Marine Debris and Fisheries. In: Butterworth, A. (eds) Marine Mammal Welfare. Animal Welfare, vol 17. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46994-2_13
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46994-2_13
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-46993-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-46994-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)