Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Molecular Epidemiology of Rickettsial Diseases

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Rickettsiales

  • 782 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter summarizes the classical methods used to investigate rickettsioses initially discovered and characterized in the United States with an emphasis on their role in understanding their epidemiology. More recent molecular methodologies used to diagnose and characterize rickettsioses and rickettsial agents are then presented. New epidemiological insights into rickettsioses that have been obtained by using these molecular tools are then reviewed. Finally, the limitations of contemporary tools used in the molecular epidemiology of rickettsioses are examined and discussed in the context of new opportunities for improvement of these current approaches.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Reporting Diseases & Conditions, NYC Health. Retrieved May 10, 2016, from http://www1.nyc.gov/site/doh/providers/reporting-and-services/notifiable-diseases-and-conditions-reporting-central.page.

  • Case definition (1990). Case definitions for public health surveillance. Mortality and Morbidity Weekly Reports 39(19): RR-13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Case definition (2010). CSTE Position Statement Number: 09-ID-16. Spotted Fever Rickettsiosis. 2010 Case Definition. Retrieved May 16, 2012, from http://www.cdc.gov/osels/ph_surveillance/nndss/casedef/spottedfever_current.htm.

  • Abramowicz KF, Rood MP, Krueger L, Eremeeva ME (2011). Urban focus of Rickettsia typhi and Rickettsia felis in Los Angeles, California. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11: 979–984.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Abramowicz KF, Wekesa JW, Nwadike CN, Zambrano ML, Karpathy SE, et al. (2012). Rickettsia felis in cat fleas, Ctenocephalides felis parasitizing opossums, San Bernardino County, California. Med Vet Entomol 26: 458–462.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adjemian J, Krebs J, Mandel E, McQuiston J (2009). Spatial clustering by disease severity among reported Rocky Mountain spotted fever cases in the United States, 2001-2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 80: 72–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agnew DH. (1890). The medical history of the Philadelphia Almshouse. Philadelphia Hospital Reports I: 2-55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, S. G., A. Zomorodipour, J. O. Andersson, T. Sicheritz-Pontn, U. C. Alsmark, et al. (1998). The genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii and the origin of mitochondria. Nature 396: 133–140.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson SG, Zomorodipour A, Winkler HH, Kurland CG (1995). Unusual organization of the rRNA genes in Rickettsia prowazekii. J Bacteriol 177: 4171-4175.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Angelakis E, Mediannikov O, Parola P, Raoult D (2016). Rickettsia felis: the complex journey of an emergent human pathogen. Trends Parasitol. 32: 554-564.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apperson C, Engber B, Nicholson W, Mead D, Engel J, et al. (2008). Tick-borne diseases in North Carolina: is “Rickettsia amblyommii” a possible cause of rickettsiosis reported as Rocky Mountain spotted fever? Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 8: 597–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Archibald LK, Sexton DJ (1995). Long-term sequelae of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Clin Infect Dis 20: 1122–1125.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balayeva N (1989). Approaches to the molecular epidemiology of rickettsioses. Eur J Epidemiol 5: 414–419.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beeler E, Abramowicz KF, Zambrano ML, Sturgeon MM, Khalaf N, et al. (2011). A focus of dogs and Rickettsia massiliae-infected Rhipicephalus sanguineus in California. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 244–249.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bergeron JW, Braddom RL, Kaelin DL (1997). Persisting impairment following Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever: a case report. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78: 1277–1280.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhavnani SK, Drake J, Bellala G, Dang B, Peng BH, et al. JP (2013). How cytokines co-occur across rickettsioses patients: from bipartite visual analytics to mechanistic inferences of a cytokine storm. AMIA Jt Summits Transl Sci Proc 2013: 15–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biggs HM, Behravech CB, Bradley KK, Dahlgren FS, Drexler NA, et al. (2016). Diagnosis and management of tickborne rickettsial diseases: Rocky Mountain spotted fever and other spotted fever group rickettsioses, ehrlichioses, and anaplasmosis - United States. A practical guide for health care professionals. MMWR RR 65: 1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billeter SA, Blanton HL, Little SE, Levy MG, Breitschwerdt EB (2007). Detection of Rickettsia amblyommii in association with a tick bite rash. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 7: 607–610.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billeter SA, Diniz PP, Jett LA, Wournell AL, Kjemtrup AM, et al. (2016). Detection of Rickettsia species in fleas collected from cats in regions endemic and nonendemic for flea-borne rickettsioses in California. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 16: 151–156.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop-Lilly KA, Ge H, Butani A, Osborne B, Verratti K, et al. (2013). Genome sequencing of four strains of Rickettsia prowazekii, the causative agent of epidemic typhus, including one flying squirrel isolate. Genome Announc 1(3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanton LS, Lea AS, Kelly BC, Walker DH (2015a). An unusual cutaneous manifestation in a patient with murine typhus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 93: 1164–1167.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Blanton LS, Vohra RF, Bouyer DH, Walker DH (2015b). Reemergence of murine typhus in Galveston, Texas, USA, (2013). Emerg Infect Dis 21: 484–486.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boretti FS, Perreten A, Meli ML, Cattori V, Willi B, et al. (2009). Molecular investigations of Rickettsia helvetica infection in dogs, foxes, humans, and Ixodes ticks. Appl Environ Microbiol 75: 3230–3237.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bouquet J, Soloski MJ, Swei A, Cheadle C, Federman S, et al. (2016). Longitudinal transcriptome analysis reveals a sustained differential gene expression signature in patients treated for acute Lyme disease. MBio 7: e00100-00116.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bozeman FM, Masiello SA, Williams MS, Elisberg BL (1975). Epidemic typhus rickettsiae isolated from flying squirrels. Nature 255: 545–547.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budachetri K, Browning RE, Adamson SW, Dowd SE, Chao CC, et al. (2014). An insight into the microbiome of the Amblyomma maculatum (Acari: Ixodidae). J Med Entomol 51: 119–129.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Burgdorfer W. (1988). Ecological and epidemiological considerations of Rocky Mountain spotted fever and scrub typhus. In: Walker DH, editor. Biology of Rickettsial Diseases. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 33–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr SB, Bergamo DF, Emmanuel PJ, Ferreira JA (2014). Murine typhus as a cause of cognitive impairment: case report and a review of the literature. Pediatr Neurol 50: 265–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman AS, Swerdlow DL, Dato VM, Anderson AD, Moodie CE, et al. (2009). Cluster of sylvatic epidemic typhus cases associated with flying squirrels, 2004-2006. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1005–1011.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhry MA, Scofield RH (2013). Atypical Rocky Mountain spotted fever with polyarticular arthritis. Am J Med Sci 346: 427–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi YJ, Lee EM, Park JM, Lee KM, Han SH, et al. (2007). Molecular detection of various rickettsiae in mites (acari: trombiculidae) in southern Jeolla Province, Korea. Microbiol Immunol 51: 307–312.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Civen R, Ngo V (2008). Murine typhus: an unrecognized suburban vectorborne disease. Clin Infect Dis 46: 913–918.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark TR, Noriea NF, Bublitz DC, Ellison DW, Martens C, et al. (2015). Comparative genome sequencing of Rickettsia rickettsii strains that differ in virulence. Infect Immun 83: 1568–1576.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clayton KA, Gall CA, Mason KL, Scoles GA, Brayton KA (2015). The characterization and manipulation of the bacterial microbiome of the Rocky Mountain wood tick, Dermacentor andersoni. Parasit Vectors 8: 632.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clements ML, Dumler JS, Fiset P, Wisseman CL, Snyder MJ, et al. (1983). Serodiagnosis of Rocky Mountain spotted fever: comparison of IgM and IgG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and indirect fluorescent antibody test. J Infect Dis 148: 876–880.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cordell EF (1903). The Medical Annals of Maryland, 1799-1899. Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtin RG (1890). Epidemics in the Philadelphia Hospital from 1862 to 1890. Philadelphia Hospital Reports I: 309–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damas JK, Davi G, Jensenius M, Santilli F, Otterdal K, et al. (2009). Relative chemokine and adhesion molecule expression in Mediterranean spotted fever and African tick bite fever. J Infect 58: 68–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dasch GA, Graddy H, Wikswo M, Pegg E, Green D, et al. (2006). Stability of insertion/deletion events for rapid and simple differentiation of Rickettsia prowazekii and Rickettsia typhi. The 20th Meeting of the American Society for Rickettsiology; Asilomar, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dasch GA, Highbauh A, Nicholson WL. (2001). Direct binding and competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for identifying the etiologic agents of spotted fever (abstract 8). In. Program and Abstracts of the American Society for Rickettsiology. Joint Conference, Big Sky, MT. Missoula, MT, USA: ASR.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dasch GA, Samms JR, Weiss E (1978). Biochemical characteristics of typhus group rickettsiae with special attention to the Rickettsia prowazekii strains isolated from flying squirrels. Infect Immun 19: 676–685.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Delisle J, Mendell NL, Stull-Lane A, Bloch KC, Bouyer DH, et al. (2016). Human infections by multiple spotted fever group rickettsiae in Tennessee. Am J Trop Med Hyg 94: 1212–1217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Demma L, Traeger M, Blau D, Gordon R, Johnson B, et al. (2006). Serologic evidence for exposure to Rickettsia rickettsii in eastern Arizona and recent emergence of Rocky Mountain spotted fever in this region. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 6: 423–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demma LJ, Traeger MS, Nicholson WL, Paddock CD, Blau DM, et al. (2005). Rocky Mountain spotted fever from an unexpected tick vector in Arizona. N Engl J Med 353: 587–594.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denison AM, Amin BD, Nicholson WL, Paddock CD (2014). Detection of Rickettsia rickettsii, Rickettsia parkeri, and Rickettsia akari in skin biopsy specimens using a multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. Clin Infect Dis 59: 635–642.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Edouard S, Subramanian G, Lefevre B, Dos Santos A, Pouedras P, et al. (2013). Co-infection with Arsenophonus nasoniae and Orientia tsutsugamushi in a traveler. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13: 565–571.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elisberg BL, Bozeman F. (1979). The rickettsiae. In: Lennette E, Schmidt N, editors. Diagnostic procedures for viral, rickettsial and chlamydial infections. Washington DC: American Public Health Association p. 1061–1108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison DW, Clark TR, Sturdevant DE, Virtaneva K, Porcella SF, et al. (2008). Genomic comparison of virulent Rickettsia rickettsii Sheila Smith and avirulent Rickettsia rickettsii Iowa. Infect Immun 76: 542–550.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva M, Dasch G (2009). Closing the gaps between genotype and phenotype in Rickettsia rickettsii. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1166: 12–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva M, Yu X, Raoult D (1994). Differentiation among spotted fever group rickettsiae species by analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism of PCR-amplified DNA. J Clin Microbiol 32: 803–810.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME (2012). Molecular epidemiology of rickettsial diseases in North America. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 3: 332–337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME, Bosserman E, Zambrano M, Demma L, Dasch GA (2006a). Molecular typing of novel Rickettsia rickettsii isolates from Arizona. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1078: 573–577.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME, Bosserman EA, Demma LJ, Zambrano ML, Blau DM, et al. (2006b). Isolation and identification of Rickettsia massiliae from Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks collected in Arizona. Appl Environ Microbiol 72: 5569–5577.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME, Dasch GA, Silverman DJ (2003a). Evaluation of a PCR assay for quantitation of Rickettsia rickettsii and closely related spotted fever group rickettsiae. J Clin Microbiol 41: 5466–5472.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME, Karpathy SE, Krueger L, Hayes EK, Williams AM, et al. (2012). Two pathogens and one disease: detection and identification of flea-borne rickettsiae in areas endemic for murine typhus in California. J Med Entomol 49: 1485–1494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME, Klemt RM, Santucci-Domotor LA, Silverman DJ, Dasch GA (2003b). Genetic analysis of isolates of Rickettsia rickettsii that differ in virulence. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990: 717–722.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eremeeva ME, Zambrano ML, Anaya L, Beati L, Karpathy S, et al. (2011). Rickettsia rickettsii in Rhipicephalus ticks, Mexicali, Mexico. J Med Entomol 48: 1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Estripeaut D, Aramburu MG, Saez-Llorens X, Thompson HA, Dasch GA, et al. (2007). Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Panama. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 1763–1765.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fleck L (1947). Specific antigenic substances in the urine of typhus patients. Tex Rep Biol Med 5: 168–172.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fleck L, Porat S, Evenchik Z, Klinberg MA (1960). The renal excretion of specific microbial substances during the course of infection with murine typhus rickettsiae. Am J Hyg 72: 351–361.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fornadel CM, Smith JD, Zawada SE, Arias JR, Norris DE (2013). Detection of Rickettsia massiliae in Rhipicephalus sanguineus from the eastern United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13: 67–69.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Forte GI, Scola L, Misiano G, Milano S, Mansueto P, et al. (2009). Relevance of gamma interferon, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-10 gene polymorphisms to susceptibility to Mediterranean spotted fever. Clin Vaccine Immunol 16: 811–815.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier P-E, Dumler JS, Greub G, Zhang J, Wu Y, et al. (2003). Gene sequence-based criteria for identification of new rickettsia isolates and description of Rickettsia heilongjiangensis sp. nov. J Clin Microbiol 41: 5456–5465.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier P-E, Roux V, Raoult D (1998). Phylogenetic analysis of spotted fever group rickettsiae by study of the outer surface protein rOmpA. Int J Syst Bacteriol 48: 839–849.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier PE, Raoult D (2007). Identification of rickettsial isolates at the species level using multi-spacer typing. BMC Microbiol 7: 72.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier PE, Zhu Y, Ogata H, Raoult D (2004). Use of highly variable intergenic spacer sequences for multispacer typing of Rickettsia conorii strains. J Clin Microbiol 42: 5757–5766.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fournier PE, Zhu Y, Yu X, Raoult D (2006). Proposal to create subspecies of Rickettsia sibirica and an emended description of Rickettsia sibirica. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1078: 597–606.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fritz CL, Kriner P, Garcia D, Padgett KA, Espinosa A, et al. (2012). Tick infestation and spotted-fever group Rickettsia in shelter dogs, California, 2009. Zoonoses Public Health 59: 4–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez Hernández G.,Contreras Soto JJ (2013). Mortality from Rickettsia rickettsii spotted fever in patients at a pediatric hospital in the state of Sonora, 2004-2012. Salud Publica Mex 55: 151–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Garcia JC, Portillo A, Nunez MJ, Santibanez S, Castro B, et al. (2010). A patient from Argentina infected with Rickettsia massiliae. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 691–692.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ge H, Tong M, Jiang J, Dasch GA, Richards AL (2007). Genotypic comparison of five isolates of Rickettsia prowazekii by multilocus sequence typing. FEMS Microbiol Lett 271: 112–117.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillespie JJ, Joardar V, Williams KP, Driscoll T, Hostetler JB, et al. (2012). A Rickettsia genome overrun by mobile genetic elements provides insight into the acquisition of genes characteristic of an obligate intracellular lifestyle. J Bacteriol 194: 376–394.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmore RD, Jr., Hackstadt T (1991). DNA polymorphism in the conserved 190 kDa antigen gene repeat region among spotted fever group rickettsiae. Biochim Biophys Acta 1097: 77–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giulieri S, Jaton K, Cometta A, Trellu LT, Greub G (2012). Development of a duplex real-time PCR for the detection of Rickettsia spp. and typhus group rickettsia in clinical samples. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 64: 92–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard J (2009). Historical and recent evidence for close relationships among Rickettsia parkeri, R. conorii, R. africae, and R. sibirica: implications for rickettsial taxonomy. J Vector Ecol 34: 238–242.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goncalves da Costa PS, Brigatte ME, Pereira de Almeida E, de Carvalho Valle LM (2002). Atypical fulminant Rickettsia rickettsii infection (Brazilian spotted fever) presenting as septic shock and adult respiratory distress syndrome. Braz J Infect Dis 6: 91–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hajduskova E, Literak I, Papousek I, Costa FB, Novakova M, et al. (2016). ‘Candidatus Rickettsia mendelii’, a novel basal group rickettsia detected in Ixodes ricinus ticks in the Czech Republic. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 7: 482–486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harden VA. (1990). Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever: History of a Twentieth-Century Disease. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry KM, Jiang J, Rozmajzl PJ, Azad AF, Macaluso KR, et al. (2007). Development of quantitative real-time PCR assays to detect Rickettsia typhi and Rickettsia felis, the causative agents of murine typhus and flea-borne spotted fever. Mol Cell Probes 21: 17–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrick KL, Pena SA, Yaglom HD, Layton BJ, Moors A, et al. (2016). Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis, Arizona, USA. Emerg Infect Dis 22: 780–785.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang J, Maina AN, Knobel DL, Cleaveland S, Laudisoit A, et al. (2013). Molecular detection of Rickettsia felis and Candidatus Rickettsia asemboensis in fleas from human habitats, Asembo, Kenya. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13: 550–558.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang J, Yarina T, Miller MK, Stromdahl EY, Richards AL (2010). Molecular detection of Rickettsia amblyommii in Amblyomma americanum parasitizing humans. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 10: 329–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jiang J, You BJ, Liu E, Apte A, Yarina TR, et al. (2012). Development of three quantitative real-time PCR assays for the detection of Rickettsia raoultii, Rickettsia slovaca, and Rickettsia aeschlimannii and their validation with ticks from the country of Georgia and the Republic of Azerbaijan. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 3: 327–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston SH, Glaser CA, Padgett K, Wadford DA, Espinosa A, et al. (2013). Rickettsia spp. 364D causing a cluster of eschar-associated illness, California. Pediatr Infect Dis J 32: 1036–1039.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karpathy SE, Dasch GA, Eremeeva ME (2007). Molecular typing of isolates of Rickettsia rickettsii by use of DNA sequencing of variable intergenic regions. J Clin Microbiol 45: 2545–2553.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kato CY, Chung IH, Robinson LK, Austin AL, Dasch GA, et al. (2013). Assessment of real-time PCR assay for detection of Rickettsia spp. and Rickettsia rickettsii in banked clinical samples. J Clin Microbiol 51: 314–317.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kato CY, Chung IH, Robinson LK, Eremeeva ME, Bruce DC, et al. (2010). Mismatch amplification mutation assays for genotyping Rickettsia typhi. The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), 8th ASM Biodefense Research Meeting; February 21–24, (2010); Baltimore, MD

    Google Scholar 

  • Kato CY, Robinson LK, White FH, Slater K, Karpathy SE, et al. (2009). The 23rd Meeting of the American Society for Rickettsiology. Hilton Head, South Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khrouf F, Sellami H, Elleuch E, Hattab Z, Ammari L, et al. (2016). Molecular diagnosis of Rickettsia infection in patients from Tunisia. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 7: 653–656.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo M, Akachi S, Kawano M, Yamanaka K, Yamagiwa A, et al. (2015). Improvement in early diagnosis of Japanese spotted fever by using a novel Rick PCR system. J Dermatol 42: 1066–1071.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulagin S (1952). Characteristics of endemic rickettsioses. Zh. Microbiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 12: 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Scola B, Raoult D. (1999). Serologic diagnosis of rickettsiosis. In: Raoult D, Brouqui P, editors. Rickettsiae and rickettsial diseases at the turn of the third millennium. Paris: Elsevier. p. 320–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Scola B, Rydkina L, Ndihokubwayo JB, Vene S, Raoult D (2000). Serological differentiation of murine typhus and epidemic typhus using cross-adsorption and Western blotting. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 7: 612–616.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Labruna MB (2009). Ecology of rickettsia in South America. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1166: 156–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lado P, Costa FB, Verdes JM, Labruna MB, Venzal JM (2015). Seroepidemiological survey of Rickettsia spp. in dogs from the endemic area of Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis in Uruguay. Acta Trop 146: 7–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lane RS, Emmons RW, Dondero DV, Nelson BC (1981). Ecology of tick-borne agents in California: I. Spotted fever group rickettsiae. Am J Trop Med Hyg 30: 239–252.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lane RS, Philip RN, Casper EA. (1981). Ecology of tick-borne agents in California: II. Further observations on rickettsiae. In: Burgdorfer W, Anacker RL, editors. Rickettsiae and Rickettsial Diseases. New York, New York: Academic Press. p. 575–584.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee S, Kakumanu ML, Ponnusamy L, Vaughn M, Funkhouser S, et al. (2014). Prevalence of Rickettsiales in ticks removed from the skin of outdoor workers in North Carolina. Parasit Vectors 7: 607.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd SJ, LaPatra SE, Snekvik KR, Cain KD, Call DR (2011). Quantitative PCR demonstrates a positive correlation between a Rickettsia-like organism and severity of strawberry disease lesions in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). J Fish Dis 34: 701–709.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Londono AF, Diaz FJ, Valbuena G, Gazi M, Labruna MB, et al. (2014). Infection of Amblyomma ovale by Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest, Colombia. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 5: 672–675.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Love GJ, Smith WW (1960). Murine typhus investigations in southwestern Georgia. Public Health Rep 75: 429–440.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mansueto P, Vitale G, Cascio A, Seidita A, Pepe I, et al. (2012). New insight into immunity and immunopathology of rickettsial diseases. Clin Dev Immunol 2012:967852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto M, Tange Y, Okada T, Inoue Y, Horiuchi T, et al. (1996). Deletion in the 190 kDa antigen gene repeat region of Rickettsia rickettsii. Microb Pathog 20: 57–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McQuiston JH, Zemtsova G, Perniciaro J, Hutson M, Singleton J, et al. (2012). Afebrile spotted fever group Rickettsia infection after a bite from a Dermacentor variabilis tick infected with Rickettsia montanensis. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 12: 1059–1061.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mediannikov O, Aubadie-Ladrix M, Raoult D (2015). Candidatus ‘Rickettsia senegalensis’ in cat fleas in Senegal. New Microbes New Infect 3: 24–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mediannikov O, Socolovschi C, Edouard S, Fenollar F, Mouffok N, et al. (2013). Common epidemiology of Rickettsia felis infection and malaria, Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 19: 1775–1783.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Melo AL, Alves AS, Nieri-Bastos FA, Martins TF, Witter R, et al. (2015). Rickettsia parkeri infecting free-living Amblyomma triste ticks in the Brazilian Pantanal. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 6: 237–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mixson TR, Campbell SR, Gill JS, Ginsberg HS, Reichard MV, et al. (2006). Prevalence of Ehrlichia, Borrelia, and Rickettsial agents in Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae) collected from nine states. J Med Entomol 43: 1261–1268.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moncayo AC, Cohen SB, Fritzen CM, Huang E, Yabsley MJ, et al. (2010). Absence of Rickettsia rickettsii and occurrence of other spotted fever group rickettsiae in ticks from Tennessee. Am J Trop Med Hyg 83: 653–657.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Monje LD, Nava S, Eberhardt AT, Correa AI, Guglielmone AA, et al. (2015). Molecular detection of the human pathogenic Rickettsia sp. strain Atlantic rainforest in Amblyomma dubitatum ticks from Argentina. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 15: 167–169.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moron CG, Bouyer DH, Yu XJ, Foil LD, Crocquet-Valdes P, et al. (2000). Phylogenetic analysis of the rompB genes of Rickettsia felis and Rickettsia prowazekii European-human and North American flying-squirrel strains. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62: 598–603.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mouffok N, Socolovschi C, Benabdellah A, Renvoise A, Parola P, et al. (2011). Diagnosis of rickettsioses from eschar swab samples, Algeria. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 1968–1969.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Myers T, Lalani T, Dent M, Jiang J, Daly PL, et al. (2013). Detecting Rickettsia parkeri infection from eschar swab specimens. Emerg Infect Dis 19: 778–780.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Newhouse VF, Shepard CC, Redus MD, Tzianabos T, McDade JE (1979). A comparison of the complement fixation, indirect fluorescent antibody, and microagglutination tests for the serological diagnosis of rickettsial diseases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 28: 387–395.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson WL, Masters E, Wormser GP (2009). Preliminary serologic investigation of ‘Rickettsia amblyommii’ in the aetiology of Southern tick associated rash illness (STARI). Clin Microbiol Infect 15 Suppl 2: 235–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ogrzewalska M, Nieri-Bastos FA, Marcili A, Nava S, Gonzalez-Acuna D, et al. (2016). A novel spotted fever group Rickettsia infecting Amblyomma parvitarsum (Acari: Ixodidae) in highlands of Argentina and Chile. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 7: 439–442.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Openshaw JJ, Swerdlow DL, Krebs JW, Holman RC, Mandel E, et al. (2010). Rocky mountain spotted fever in the United States, 2000-(2007): interpreting contemporary increases in incidence. Am J Trop Med Hyg 83: 174–182.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paddock CD, Denison AM, Dryden MW, Noden BH, Lash RR, et al. (2015). High prevalence of “Candidatus Rickettsia andeanae” and apparent exclusion of Rickettsia parkeri in adult Amblyomma maculatum (Acari: Ixodidae) from Kansas and Oklahoma. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 6: 297–302.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paddock CD, Denison AM, Lash RR, Liu L, Bollweg BC, et al. (2014). Phylogeography of Rickettsia rickettsii genotypes associated with fatal Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 589–597.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paddock CD, Eremeeva ME. (2007). Rickettsialpox. In: Raoult D, Parola P, editors. Rickettsia and Rickettsial Diseases: Informa Healthcare USA, Inc. p. 63–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paddock CD, Finley RW, Wright CS, Robinson HN, Schrodt BJ, et al. (2008). Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis and its clinical distinction from Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Clin Infect Dis 47: 1188–1196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paddock CD, Sumner JW, Comer JA, Zaki SR, Goldsmith CS, et al. (2004). Rickettsia parkeri: a newly recognized cause of spotted fever rickettsiosis in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 38: 805–811.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paddock CD, Zaki SR, Koss T, Singleton J, Jr., Sumner JW, et al. (2003). Rickettsialpox in New York City: a persistent urban zoonosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 990: 36–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Padgett KA, Bonilla D, Eremeeva ME, Glaser C, Lane RS, et al. (2016). The Eco–epidemiology of Pacific Coast Tick Fever in California. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0005020.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker RR, Pickens EG, Lackman DB, Bell EJ, Thraikill FB (1951). Isolation and characterization of Rocky Mountain spotted fever rickettsiae from the rabbit tick Haemaphysalis leporis-palustris Packard. Publ Hlth Rep 66: 455–463.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parola P, Labruna MB, Raoult D (2009). Tick-borne rickettsioses in America: unanswered questions and emerging diseases. Curr Infect Dis Rep 11: 40–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parola P, Paddock CD, Raoult D (2005). Tick–borne rickettsioses around the world: emerging diseases challenging old concepts. Clin Microbiol Rev 18: 719–756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parola P, Paddock CD, Socolovschi C, Labruna MB, Mediannikov O, et al. (2013). Update on tick-borne rickettsioses around the world: a geographic approach. Clin Microbiol Rev 26: 657–702.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Parola P, Socolovschi C, Jeanjean L, Bitam I, Fournier PE, et al. (2008). Warmer weather linked to tick attack and emergence of severe rickettsioses. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2: e338.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Philip RN, Casper EA, Burgdorfer W, Gerloff RK, Hughes LE, et al. (1978). Serologic typing of rickettsiae of the spotted fever group by immunofluorescense. J Immun 121: 1961–1968.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Philip RN, Casper EA, MacCormack JN, Sexton D, Thomas LA, et al. (1977). A comparison of serologic methods for diagnosis of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Am J Epidem 105: 56–67.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Philip RN, Casper EA, Ormsbee RA, Peacock MG, Burgdorfer W (1976). Microimmunofluorescence test for the serological study of rocky mountain spotted fever and typhus. J Clin Microbiol 3: 51–61.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pinter A, Horta MC, Pacheco RC, Moraes-Filho J, Labruna MB (2008). Serosurvey of Rickettsia spp. in dogs and humans from an endemic area for Brazilian spotted fever in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica 24: 247–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Popivanova NI, Murdjeva MA, Baltadzhiev IG, Haydushka IA (2011). Dynamics in serum cytokine responses during acute and convalescent stages of Mediterranean spotted fever. Folia Med (Plovdiv) 53: 36–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portillo A, Garcia-Garcia C, Sanz MM, Santibanez S, Venzal JM, et al. (2013). A confirmed case of Rickettsia parkeri infection in a traveler from Uruguay. Am J Trop Med Hyg 89: 1203–1205.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Premaratna R, Halambarachchige LP, Nanayakkara DM, Chandrasena TG, Rajapakse RP, et al. (2011). Evidence of acute rickettsioses among patients presumed to have chikungunya fever during the chikungunya outbreak in Sri Lanka. Int J Infect Dis 15: e871–873.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Procop GW, Burchette JL, Jr., Howell DN, Sexton DJ (1997). Immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescent staining of Rickettsia rickettsii in skin biopsies. A comparative study. Arch Pathol Lab Med 121: 894–899.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raoult D, Dasch GA (1995). Immunoblot cross-reactions among Rickettsia, Proteus spp. and Legionella spp. in patients with Mediterranean spotted fever. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 11: 13–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raoult D, Paddock CD (2005). Rickettsia parkeri infection and other spotted fevers in the United States. N Engl J Med 353: 626–627.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raoult D, Parola P (2008). Rocky Mountain spotted fever in the USA: a benign disease or a common diagnostic error? Lancet Infect Dis 8: 587–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Regnery RL, Spruill CL, Plikaytis BD (1991). Genotypic identification of rickettsiae and estimation of intraspecies sequence divergence for portions of two rickettsial genes. J Bacteriol 173: 1576–1589.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Reif KE, Macaluso KR (2009). Ecology of Rickettsia felis: a review. J Med Entomol 46: 723–736.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Renvoise A, van’t Wout JW, van der Schroeff JG, Beersma MF, Raoult D (2012). A case of rickettsialpox in Northern Europe. Int J Infect Dis 16: e221–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rolain JM, Maurin M, Vestris G, Raoult D (1998). In vitro susceptibilities of 27 rickettsiae to 13 antimicrobials. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42: 1537–1541.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Romer Y, Nava S, Govedic F, Cicuttin G, Denison AM, et al. (2014). Rickettsia parkeri rickettsiosis in different ecological regions of Argentina and its association with Amblyomma tigrinum as a potential vector. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91: 1156–1160.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Romer Y, Seijo AC, Crudo F, Nicholson WL, Varela-Stokes A, et al. (2011). Rickettsia parkeri Rickettsiosis, Argentina. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 1169–1173.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen G (1972). Tenements and typhus in New York City, 1840-1875. Am J Public Health 62: 590–593.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roux V, Fournier PE, Raoult D (1996). Differentiation of spotted fever group rickettsiae by sequencing and analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism of PCR-amplified DNA of the gene encoding the protein rOmpA. J Clin Microbiol 34: 2058–2065.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roux V, Raoult D (1995). Phylogenetic analysis of the genus Rickettsia by 16S rDNA sequencing. Res Microbiol 146: 385–396.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roux V, Rydkina E, Eremeeva M, Raoult D (1997). Citrate synthase gene comparison, a new tool for phylogenetic analysis, and its application for the rickettsiae. Int J Syst Bacteriol 47: 252–261.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rozental T, Eremeeva ME, Paddock CD, Zaki SR, Dasch GA, et al. (2006). Fatal case of Brazilian spotted fever confirmed by immunohistochemical staining and sequencing methods on fixed tissues. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1078: 257–259.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sahni SK, Narra HP, Sahni A, Walker DH (2013). Recent molecular insights into rickettsial pathogenesis and immunity. Future Microbiol 8: 1265–1288.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sahni SK, Rydkina E (2009). Host-cell interactions with pathogenic Rickettsia species. Future Microbiol 4: 323–339.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schriefer ME, Sacci JB, Jr., Dumler JS, Bullen MG, Azad AF (1994). Identification of a novel rickettsial infection in a patient diagnosed with murine typhus. J Clin Microbiol 32: 949–954.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shankman B (1946). Report on an outbreak of endemic febrile illness, not yet identified, occurring in New York City. N Y State J Med 46: 2156–2159.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro MR, Fritz CL, Tait K, Paddock CP, Nicholson WL, et al. (2010). Rickettsia 364D: a newly recognized cause of eschar-associated illness in California. Clin Infect Dis 50: 541–548.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silva N, Eremeeva ME, Rozental T, Ribeiro GS, Paddock CD, et al. (2011). Eschar-associated spotted fever rickettsiosis, Bahia, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 275–278.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spolidorio MG, Labruna MB, Mantovani E, Brandao PE, Richtzenhain LJ, et al. (2010). Novel spotted fever group rickettsiosis, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 16: 521–523.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stothard DR, Fuerst PA (1995). Evolutionary analysis of the spotted fever and typhus groups of Rickettsia using 16S rRNA gene sequences. Syst Appl Microbiol 18: 52–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stromdahl EY, Jiang J, Vince M, Richards AL (2011). Infrequency of Rickettsia rickettsii in Dermacentor variabilis removed from humans, with comments on the role of other human-biting ticks associated with spotted fever group rickettsiae in the United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 11: 969–977.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sumner JW, Durden LA, Goddard J, Stromdahl EY, Clark KL, et al. (2007). Gulf Coast ticks (Amblyomma maculatum) and Rickettsia parkeri, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 751–753.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Szabo MP, Nieri-Bastos FA, Spolidorio MG, Martins TF, Barbieri AM, et al. (2013a). In vitro isolation from Amblyomma ovale (Acari: Ixodidae) and ecological aspects of the Atlantic rainforest Rickettsia, the causative agent of a novel spotted fever rickettsiosis in Brazil. Parasitology 140: 719–728.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szabo MP, Pinter A, Labruna MB (2013b). Ecology, biology and distribution of spotted-fever tick vectors in Brazil. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 3: 27.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tai K, Iwasaki H, Ikegaya S, Takada N, Tamaki Y, et al. (2014). Significantly higher cytokine and chemokine levels in patients with Japanese spotted fever than in those with Tsutsugamushi disease. J Clin Microbiol 52: 1938–1946.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tamekuni K, Toledo Rdos S, Silva Filho Mde F, Haydu VB, Pacheco RC, et al. (2010). Serosurvey of antibodies against spotted fever group Rickettsia spp. in horse farms in Northern Parana, Brazil. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet 19: 259–261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang M, Martinez AP, Eremeeva ME, Dasch GA. (2010). Genotyping isolates of Rickettsia akari by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of intergenic regions. (2010) ICEID Meeting; Atlanta, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinoco-Gracia L, Quiroz-Romero H, Quintero-Martinez MT, Renteria-Evangelista TB, Gonzalez-Medina Y, et al. (2009). Prevalence of Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks on dogs in a region on the Mexico-USA border. Vet Rec 164: 59–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Traub R, Wisseman CL, Farhang-Azad A (1978). The ecology of murine typhus-a critical review. Trop Dis Bull 75: 237–317.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venzal JM, Estrada-Pena A, Portillo A, Mangold AJ, Castro O, et al. (2012). Rickettsia parkeri: a Rickettsial pathogen transmitted by ticks in endemic areas for spotted fever rickettsiosis in southern Uruguay. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 54: 131–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vigil A, Chen C, Jain A, Nakajima-Sasaki R, Jasinskas A, et al. (2011). Profiling the humoral immune response of acute and chronic Q fever by protein microarray. Mol Cell Proteomics 10: M110 006304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker DH, Peacock MG. (1988). Laboratory diagnosis of rickettsial diseases. In: Walker DH, editor. Biology of Rickettsial Diseases. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 135–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walter G, Botelho-Nevers E, Socolovschi C, Raoult D, Parola P (2012). Murine typhus in returned travelers: a report of thirty-two cases. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86: 1049–1053.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wikswo ME, Hu R, Metzger ME, Eremeeva ME (2007). Detection of Rickettsia rickettsii and Bartonella henselae in Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks from California. J Med Entomol 44: 158–162.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson MR, Shanbhag NM, Reid MJ, Singhal NS, Gelfand JM, et al. (2015). Diagnosing Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis with metagenomic deep sequencing. Ann Neurol 78: 722–730.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woodman DR, Weiss E, Dasch GA, Bozeman FM (1977). Biological properties of Rickettsia prowazekii strains isolated from flying squirrels. Infect Immun 16: 853–860.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward TE 1982. Murine and epidemic typhus rickettsiae: how close is their relationship? Yale J Biol Med 55: 335–341.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zaharia M, Popescu CP, Florescu SA, Ceausu E, Raoult D, et al. (2016). Rickettsia massiliae infection and SENLAT syndrome in Romania. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 2016 Mar 18. pii: S1877-959X(16)30044-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.03.008. [Epub ahead of print].

    Google Scholar 

  • Zavala-Castro JE, Zavala-Velazquez JE, Peniche-Lara GF, Sulu Uicab JE (2009). Human rickettsialpox, southeastern Mexico. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1665–1667.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zavala-Velazquez JE, Yu XJ, Walker DH (1996). Unrecognized spotted fever group rickettsiosis masquerading as dengue fever in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 55: 157–159.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zdrodovskii PF, Golinevitch HM. (1960). The Rickettsial Diseases. London: Pergamon Press Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu Y, Fournier PE, Ogata H, Raoult D (2005). Multispacer typing of Rickettsia prowazekii enabling epidemiological studies of epidemic typhus. J Clin Microbiol 43: 4708–4712.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu Y, Medina-Sanchez A, Bouyer D, Walker DH, Yu XJ (2008). Genotyping Rickettsia prowazekii isolates. Emerg Infect Dis 14: 1300–1302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zinsser H (1934). Varieties of typhus virus and the epidemiology of the American form of European typhus fever (Brill’s disease). Am J Hyg 20: 513–532.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author thanks Gregory A. Dasch for helpful discussions and for reviewing the manuscript. Many relevant publications were not cited due to the space limitation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Jiann-Ping Hsu College of Public Health, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, 30458, USA

    Marina E. Eremeeva

Authors
  1. Marina E. Eremeeva
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marina E. Eremeeva .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Lankenau Institute for Medical Research, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, USA

    Sunil Thomas

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Eremeeva, M.E. (2016). Molecular Epidemiology of Rickettsial Diseases. In: Thomas, S. (eds) Rickettsiales. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46859-4_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation