Abstract
Mammography is the primary imaging modality for breast cancer screening and diagnosis, with ultrasound being the most important adjunctive imaging tool. Breast magnetic resonance imaging is also used in certain screening and diagnostic scenarios. The American College of Radiology breast imaging reporting and data system (BI-RADS) provides a standardized lexicon that improves communication of breast imaging results, allows for patient tracking and quality assurance, and facilitates medical audits. Due to its widespread, international use, the BI-RADS lexicon should be understood by all referring clinicians and will be a focus of this chapter.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
McLelland R, Hendrick RE, Zinninger MD, et al. The American college of radiology mammography accreditation program. Am J Roentgenol. 1991;157:497.
Mammography Quality Standards Act of 1992. Public Law 102539.
D’Orsi CJ, Sickles EA, Mendelson EB, Morris EA, et al. ACR BI-RADS Atlas, breast imaging reporting and data system. Reston, VA: American College of Radiology; 2013.
American College of Radiology. Standards for the performance of screening mammography. [Adopted by the ACR Council 1990, Revised 1994]. In: ACR digest of official actions. Reston, VA: ACR; 1994.
Tabar L, Fagerberg CJ, Gad A, et al. Reduction in mortality from breast cancer after mass screening with mammography: randomized trial from the breast cancer screening working group of the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare. Lancet. 1985;1:829–32.
National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel: breast cancer screening for women 40–49. J Natl Cancer inst. 1997;39:1015–26.
Howlander N, Noone A, Krapcho M, et al. SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2012. Bethesda, MD: National Cancer Institute; 2015.
Webb ML, Cady B, Michaelson JS, Bush DM, Calvillo KZ, Kopans DB, Smith BL. A failure analysis of invasive breast cancer: most deaths from disease occur in women not regularly screened. Cancer. 2014;120(18):2839–46. doi:10.1002/cncr.28199.
Hellquist BN, Duffy SW, Abdsaleh S, et al. Effectiveness of population-based service screening with mammography for women ages 40-49 years: evaluation of the Swedish mammography screening in young women (SCRY) cohort. Cancer. 2011;117(4):714–22. doi:10.1002/cncr.25650 (Epub 2010 Sep 29).
Duffy SW, Tabar L, Chen HH, et al. The impact of organized mammography service screening on breast carcinoma mortality in seven Swedish counties. Cancer. 2002;95:458–69.
Freer P, Moy L, Demartini WB. Breast cancer screening: understanding the randomized controlled trial. SBI News. 2015;3:25–7.
Joe B, Price E, Parkinson B. Screening in the 40–49 age group. SBI News. 2016;1:12–4.
Independent UK. Panel on breast cancer screening. The benefits and harms of breast cancer screening: an independent review. Lancet. 2012;380:1778–86.
Smith RA, Duffy SW, Gabe R, Tabar L, Yen AM, Chen TH. The randomized trials of breast cancer screening: what have we learned? Radiol Clin North Am. 2004;42:793–806.
Tabar L, Yen AM, Wu WY, et al. Insights from the breast cancer screening trials: how screening affects the natural history of breast cancer and implications for evaluating service screening programs. Breast J. 2015;21:13–20.
Duffy SW, Yen AMF, Chen THH, et al. Long-term benefits of breast screening. Breast Cancer Manage. 2012;1:31–8.
Gotzsche PC, Jorgensen KJ. Screening for breast cancer with mammography. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;6:CD001877.
Broeders M, Moss S, Nystrom L, et al. The impact of mammographic screening on breast cancer mortality in Europe: a review of observational studies. J Med Screen. 2012;19(suppl 1):14–25.
Nickson C, Mason KE, English DR, Kavanagh AM. Mammographic screening and breast cancer mortality: a case-control study and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2012;21:1479–88.
Coldman A, Phillips N, Wilson C, et al. Pan-Canadian study of mammography screening and mortality from breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2014;106(11):dju261.
Cancer Intervention and Surveillance Modeling Network. (CISNET) Collaborators. Effect of screening and adjuvant therapy on mortality from breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1784–92.
Hendrick RE, Helvie MA. Mammography screening: a new estimate of number needed to screen to prevent one breast cancer death. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2012;198(3):723–8.
Oeffinger KC, Fontham ETH, Etzioni R. Breast cancer screening for women at average risk 2015 guideline update from the American Cancer Society. JAMA. 2015;314(15):1599–614.
Siu AL. Screening for breast cancer: U.S. preventive services task force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:279–96.
Singletary SE, Allred C, Ashley P, et al. Staging system for breast cancer: revisions for the 6th edition of the AJCC cancer staging manual. Surg Clin North Am. 2003;83(4):803–19.
American College of Radiology (ACR). Clinical Practice Guideline for the performance of diagnostic mammography and problem-solving breast evaluation [Adopted by the ACR Council 1994]. In: ACR digest of official actions. Reston, VA: ACR; 1994.
Destounis SV, Morgan R, Arieno A. Screening for dense breasts: digital breast tomosynthesis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2015;204:261–4.
McDonald ES, Oustimov A, Weinstein SP, et al. Effectiveness of digital breast tomosynthesis compared with digital mammogram: outcome analysis from 3 years of breast cancer screening. JAMA Oncol. 2016;6:737–43.
Rose SL, Tidwell AL, Gujnoch LJ, et al. Implementation of breast tomosynthesis in a routine screening practice: an observational study. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2013;200(6):1401–8.
Skaane P, Bandos AI, Gullien R, et al. Comparison of digital mammography alone and digital mammography plus tomosynthesis in a population-based screening program. Radiology. 2013;267(1):47–56.
Friedewald SM, Rafferty EA, Rose SL, et al. Breast cancer screening using tomosynthesis in combination with digital mammography. JAMA. 2014;311(24):2499–507.
Ciatto S, Houssami N, Bernardi D, et al. Integration of 3D digital mammography with tomosynthesis for population breast-cancer screening (STORM): a prospective comparison study. Lancet Oncol. 2013;14(7):583–9.
Skaane P, Bandos AI, Eben EB, et al. Two-view digital breast tomosynthesis screening with synthetically reconstructed projection images: comparison with digital breast tomosynthesis with full-field digital mammographic images. Radiology. 2014;271(3):655–63. doi:10.1148/radiol.13131391 (Epub 2014 Jan 24).
Linver MN, Osuch JR, Brenner RJ, et al. Mammography medical audit: primer for the mammography quality standards act (MQSA). AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1995;165:19–25.
Gold RH, Montgomery CK, Rambo ON. Significance of margination of benign and malignant infiltrative mammary lesions: roentgenologic-pathologic correlation. Am J Roentgenol. 1973;118:881–94.
Hall FM, Storella JM, Silverstone DZ, et al. Nonpalpable breast lesions: recommendations for biopsy based on suspicion of carcinoma at mammography. Radiology. 1988;167:353–8.
Moskowitz M. The predictive value of certain mammographic signs in screening for breast cancer. Cancer. 1983;51:1007–11.
Sickles EA. Nonpalpable, circumscribed, noncalcified solid breast masses: likelihood of malignancy based on lesion size and age of patient. Radiology. 1994;192:439–42.
Brenner RJ, Sickles EA. Acceptability of periodic follow-up as an alternative to biopsy for mammographically detected lesions interpreted as probably benign. Radiology. 1989;171:645–6.
Feig SA. Breast masses: mammographic and sonographic evaluation. Radiol Clin North Am. 1992;30:67–92.
Jackson VP, Dines KA, Bassett LW, et al. Diagnostic importance of radiographic density of noncalcified breast masses: analysis of 91 lesions. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1991;157:25–8.
Bassett LW. Mammographic analysis of calcifications. Radiol Clin North Am. 1992;30:93–105.
Sickles EA. Mammographic features of 300 Consecutive nonpalpable breast cancers. Am J Roentgenol. 1986;146:661–3.
Sickles EA. Mammographic features of “early”: breast cancer. Am J Roentgenol. 1984;143:461–4.
Brown ML, Houn F, Sickles EA, et al. Screening mammography in community practice: positive predictive value of abnormal finding and yield of follow-up diagnostic procedures. Am J Roentgenol. 1995;165:1373–7.
Robertson CL, Kopans DB. Communication problems after mammographic screening. Radiology. 1989;172:443–4.
Brew MD, Billings JD, Chisholm RJ. Mammography and breast pain. Australas Radiol. 1989;33:335–6.
Jackson VP, Loex AM, Smith DJ. Patient discomfort during screen-film mammography. Radiology. 1998;168:421–3.
Stomper PC, Kopans DB, Sadowsky NL, et al. Is mammography painful? A multicenter patient study. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:521–4.
Physician Insurer’s Association of America. PIAA breast cancer study, MPL cancer claims mini series: volume 1. Washington, DC: Physician Insurers Association of America; 2013.
Feig SA, Shaber GS, Patchefsky A, et al. Analysis of clinically occult and mammographically occult breast tumors. Am J Roentenol. 1977;128:403–8.
Mann BD, Giuliano AE, Bassett LW, et al. Delayed diagnosis of breast cancer as a result of normal mammograms. Arch Surg. 1983;118:23–4.
Fornage BD, Lorigan JG, Andry E. Fibroadenoma of the breast: sonographic appearance. Radiology. 1989;172:671–5.
Stavros AT, Thickman D, Rapp CL, et al. Solid breast nodules: use of sonography to distinguish between benign and malignant lesions. Radiology. 1995;196:123–34.
Entrekin R, Jackson P, Jago JR, Porter BA. Compound Imaging in breast ultrasound: technology and early clinical experience. Medicamundi. 1999;43(3):35–43.
Rosen EL, Soo MS. Tissue harmonic imaging sonography of breast lesions: improved margin analysis, conspicuity and image quality compared to conventional ultrasound. Clin Imaging. 2001;25(6):379–84.
Mesurolle B, Helou T, El-Khoury M, et al. Tissue harmonic imaging, frequency compound imaging and conventional imaging: use and benefit in breast sonography. J Ultrasound Med. 2007;26(8):1041–51.
Rahbar G, Sie AC, Hansen GC, et al. Benign versus malignant solid breast masses: US differentiation. Radiology. 1999;213:889–94.
Gordon PB, Goldenberg SL. Malignant breast masses detected only by ultrasound: a retrospective review. Cancer. 1995;76:626–60.
Buchberger W, Niehoff A, Obrist P, et al. Clinically and mammographically occult breast lesions: detection and classification with high resolution sonography. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2002;21:325–36.
Kaplan SS. Clinical utility of bilateral whole-breast US in the evaluation of women with dense breast tissue. Radiology. 2001;221:641–9.
Crystal P, Strano SD, Shcharynski S, et al. Using sonography to screen women with mammographically dense breasts. Am J Roentgenol. 2003;181:177–82.
Kolb TM, Lichy J, Newhouse JH. Occult cancer in women with dense breasts: detection with screening US—diagnostic yield and tumor characteristics. Radiology. 1998;207:191–9.
Kolb TM, Lichy J, Newhouse JH. Comparison of the performance of screening mammography, physical examination, and breast US and evaluation of factors that influence them: an analysis of 27, 825 patient evaluations. Radiology. 2002;225:165–75.
Berg WA. Rationale for a trial of screening breast ultrasound: American college of radiology imaging network (ACRIN) 6666. Am J Roentgenol. 2003;180:1225–8.
Berg WA, Blume JD, Cormack JB et al. ACRIN 6666 Investigators. Combined screening with ultrasound and mammography vs mammography alone in women at elevated risk of breast cancer. JAMA. 2008;299(18):2151–63. doi:10.1001/jama.299.18.2151.
Sprague BL, Stout NK, Schechter C, et al. Benefits, harms, and cost-effectiveness of supplemental ultrasonography screening for women with dense breasts. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162(3):157–66. doi:10.7326/M14-0692.
Parker SH, Lovin JD, Jobe WE, et al. Stereotactic breast biopsy with a biopsy gun. Radiology. 1990;176:741–7.
Jackson VP, Bassett LW. Stereotactic fine-needle aspiration biopsy for nonpalpable breast lesions. Am J Roentgenol. 1990;154:1196–7.
Bassett LW, Winchester DP, Caplan RB, et al. Stereotactic core-needle biopsy of the breast. CA Cancer J Clin. 1997;47:171–90.
Sickles EA, Parker SH. Appropriate role of core breast biopsy in the management of probably benign lesions. Radiology. 1993;199:315.
Lee CH, Philpotts LE, Horvath LJ, et al. Follow-up of breast lesions diagnosed as benign with stereotactic coreneedle biopsy: frequency of mammographic change and false negative rate. Radiology. 1999;212:189–94.
Brem RF, Behrndt VS, Sanow L, et al. Atypical ductal hyperplasia: histologic underestimation of carcinoma in tissue harvested from impalpable breast lesions using 11-G stereotactically guided directional vacuum-assisted biopsy. Am J Roentgenol. 1999;172:1405–7.
Jackman RJ, Nowels W, Rodriguez-Soto J, et al. Stereotactic, automated, large-core needle biopsy of nonpalpable breast lesions: false-negative rates and histologic underestimation rates after long-term follow-up. Radiology. 1999;210:799–805.
Liberman L, Bracero N, Vuolo MA, et al. Percutaneous large-core biopsy of papillary breast lesions. Am J Roentgenol. 1999;172:331–7.
Liberman L, Sama M, Susnik B, et al. Lobular carcinoma in situ at percutaneous breast biopsy: surgical biopsy findings. Am J Roentgenol. 1999;173:291–9.
Philpotts LE, Shaheen NA, Carter D, et al. Comparison of rebiopsy rates after stereotactic core-needle biopsy of the breast with 11-G vacuum suction probe vs. 14-G automatic gun. Am J Roentgenol. 1999;172:683–7.
Brenner RJ, Jackman RJ, Parker SH, et al. Percutaneous core needle biopsy of radial scars of the breast: when is excision necessary? Am J Roentgenol. 2002;179:1179–84.
Foster MC, Helvie MA, Gregory NE, et al. Lobular carcinoma in situ or atypical lobular hyperplasia at coreneedle biopsy: is excisional biopsy necessary? Radiology. 2004;231:813–9.
Mahoney MC, Robinson-Smith TM, Shaughnessy EA. Lobular neoplasia at 11-gauge vacuum-assisted stereotactic biopsy: correlation with surgical excisional biopsy and mammographic follow-up. Am J Roentgenol. 2006;187:949–54.
El Yousef SJ, O’Connell DM, Duchesneau RH, et al. Benign and malignant breast disease: magnetic resonance and radiofrequency pulse sequences. Am J Roentgenol. 1985;145:1–8.
Heywang SH, Hahn D, Schmidt H, et al. MR imaging of the breast using gadolinium-DTPA. J Comput Asst Tomogr. 1986;10:199–204.
Kaiser WA (1992) MRM promises earlier breast cancer diagnosis. Diagn Imaging Int. 11:44–50.
Heywang-Kobrunner SH. Contrast-enhanced MRI of the breast-overview after 1250 patient examinations. Electromedica. 1993;2:43–52.
Harms SE, Flamig DP, Hesley KL, et al. MRI of the breast with rotating delivery of excitation off resonance: clinical experience with pathologic correlation. Radiology. 1993;186:493.
Gilles R, Guinebretiere JM, Lucidarme O, et al. Nonpalpable breast tumors: diagnosis with contrast-enhanced subtraction dynamic MRI. Radiology. 1994;191:625–31.
Gorczyca DP, Sinha S, Ahn CY, et al. Silicone breast implants in vivo: MR imaging. Radiology. 1992;185:407–10.
Lehman CD, Blume JD, Weatherall P, et al. Screening women at high risk for breast cancer with mammography and magnetic resonance imaging. Cancer. 2005;103:1898–905.
Kriege M, Brekelmans CT, Boetes C, et al. Efficacy of MRI and mammography for breast-cancer screening in women with a familial or genetic predisposition. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:427–37.
Kuhl CK, Schrading S, Leutner CC, et al. Mammography, breast ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging for surveillance of women at high familial risk for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23:8469–76.
Leach MO, Boggis CR, Dixon AK, et al. Screening with magnetic resonance imaging and mammography of a UK population at high familial risk of breast cancer: a prospective multicentre cohort study (MARIBS). Lancet. 2005;365:1769–78.
Sardanelli F. Breast MRI imaging in women at high risk of breast cancer. Is something changing in early breast cancer detection? Eur Radiol. 2007;73: 873–87.
Warner E, Plewes DB, Hill KA, et al. Surveil-lance of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers with magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, mammography, and clinical breast examination. JAMA. 2004;292:1317–25.
Saslow D, Boetes C, Burke W, et al. American cancer society guidelines for breast screening with MRI as an adjunct to mammography. CA Cancer J Clin. 2009;57:75–89. doi:10.3322/canjclin.57.2.75.
Kuhl CK, Schrading S, Strobel K, et al. Abbreviated breast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): first postcontrast subtracted images and maximum-intensity projection-a novel approach to breast cancer screening with MRI. Clin Oncol. 2014;32(22):2304–10. doi:10.1200/JCO.2013.52.5386 (Epub 2014 Jun 23).
Khalkhali I, Mena I, Jouanne E, et al. Prone scintimammography in patients with suspicion of carcinoma of the breast. J Am Coll Surg. 1994;178:491–7.
Tolmos J, Cutrone JA, Wang B, et al. Scintimammographic analysis of non palpable breast lesions previously identified by conventional mammography. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90:846–9.
Prats E, Carril J, Herranz R, et al. Spanish multicenter scintigraphic study of the breast using Tc99 m MIBI: report of results. Rev Esp Med Nucl. 1998;17:338–50.
Brem RF, Floerke AC, Rapelyea JA, et al. Breast-specific gamma imaging as an adjunct imaging modality for the diagnosis of breast cancer. Radiology. 2008;247(3):651–7.
Shermis RB, Wilson KD, Doyle MT, et al. Supplemental breast cancer screening with molecular breast imaging for women with dense breast tissue. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2016;17:1–8.
Adler LP, Crowe JP, Al-Kasisi NK, et al. Evaluation of breast masses and axillary lymph nodes with (F-18) 2-Deoxy-2-fluro-D-glucose PET. Radiology. 1993;187:743–50.
Winchester DJ, Sener SF, Winchester DP, et al. Sentinel lymphadencotomy for breast cancer: experience what 180 consecutive patients: efficacy of filtered technetium 99 m sulphur colloid with overnight migration time. J Am Coll Surg. 1999;188:597–603.
Schwartz GF, Guiliano AE, Veronesi U. Consensus conference committee. Proceeding of the consensus conference of the role of sentinel lymph node biopsy in carcinoma or the breast scr; 2002.
Bassett LW, Hendrick RE, Bassford TL, et al. Quality determinants of mammography; clinical practice guideline. No 13. AHCPR Publication 95-0632. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, October 1994.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hoyt, A.C., Tsai, I. (2016). Breast Imaging. In: Jatoi, I., Rody, A. (eds) Management of Breast Diseases. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46356-8_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46356-8_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-46354-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-46356-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)