Abstract
The entry into service of the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 XWB heralded a new era in the utilisation of carbon fibre composite material in the primary structure of passenger aircraft. With an estimated 20 % airframe weight reduction in comparison to equivalent conventional aluminium aircraft, commensurate savings in fuel consumption per revenue passenger kilometre, superior fatigue and corrosion resistance and the promise of reduced maintenance schedules for the operators, it is likely that these materials will continue to feature prominently in future aircraft development programmes. Nonetheless, these ‘all-composite’ aircraft have incurred high development costs which is not a sustainable business model if composites are to be exploited across the product range of airframe manufacturers, especially towards the smaller single-aisle passenger aircraft. The high costs of materials and tooling are exacerbated by slow production rates and the extensive level of physical testing required as part of the development and certification process.
The increased use of simulation at all levels of the development cycle provides tremendous opportunities for reducing costs and improving production efficiencies. While the aerospace industry has been at the forefront of incorporating computational tools in the design and optimisation of aircraft, the use of composites has brought with it a new set of challenges in developing reliable and robust simulation tools. This chapter addresses the development and use of numerical modelling aimed at reducing the extent of physical testing. The ultimate objective is to enable certification by simulation which, in essence, requires the ability to reliably predict damage. This chapter will therefore focus on predicting damage initiation and propagation, the residual strength of damaged structures, and assessing the energy-absorbing capacity of composite structures for crashworthiness assessments. While the emphasis is primarily on aerostructures, the automotive and railway industries are exploring similar lightweighting strategies where issues such as crashworthiness are of paramount importance and where simulation will likewise play a prominent role.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- E 11 :
-
Modulus in the fibre direction
- τ 01 :
-
Mode I interlaminar strength
- E 22 :
-
Modulus in the transverse direction
- τ 02(3) :
-
Mode II interlaminar strength
- E 33 :
-
Modulus in the thickness direction
- G IC(R) :
-
Mode I interlaminar fracture toughness
- ν 12 :
-
Longitudinal-transverse Poisson’s ratio
- G IIC(R) :
-
Mode II interlaminar fracture toughness
- ν 13 :
-
Longitudinal-thickness Poisson’s ratio
- η :
-
B–K law coefficient
- ν 23 :
-
Transverse-thickness Poisson’s ratio
- μ NT(NL) :
-
Friction coefficient in Puck’s criteria
- G 12 :
-
Longitudinal-transverse shear modulus
- det F :
-
Determinant of deformation gradient
- G 13 :
-
Longitudinal-thickness shear modulus
- ρ :
-
Density
- G 23 :
-
Transverse-thickness shear modulus
- τ Y ij :
-
Yield strength under ij shear loading
- X T :
-
Longitudinal tensile strength
- α ij :
-
Strain-hardening coefficient for ij
- X C :
-
Longitudinal compressive strength
- β ij :
-
Coefficient for ij non-linear shear profile
- Y T :
-
Transverse tensile strength
- \( {p}_{1-4,\ ij} \) :
-
Degraded shear modulus coefficient
- Y C :
-
Transverse compressive strength
- σ T(C)11 :
-
Stress component
- S 12 :
-
In-plane shear strength
- d ij :
-
Damage parameter
- Γ T11 :
-
Fibre tensile fracture toughness
- σ 123(LNT) :
-
Stress in global (local) coordinate system
- Γ C11 :
-
Fibre compressive fracture toughness
- ε r,el(in) :
-
Elastic strain/inelastic strain
- Γ T22 :
-
Matrix tensile fracture toughness
- F SS :
-
Steady-state load
- Γ C22 :
-
Matrix compressive fracture toughness
- F peak :
-
Peak load
- Γ ij :
-
Shear fracture toughness for ij direction
- E abs :
-
Energy absorbed
- \( {G}_{ij}^{*,\ t+\Delta t} \) :
-
Degraded shear modulus
- SEA:
-
Specific energy absorption
References
J. Leahy, Airbus’ Global Market forecast 2015–2034 (2015). Available from: http://www.airbus.com/company/market/forecast/
W. Tan et al., Predicting low velocity impact damage and Compression-After-Impact (CAI) behaviour of composite laminates. Compos. A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 7, 212–226 (2015)
Beyond Vision 2020 (Towards 2050), Aeronautics and Air Transport (2013). Available from: ftp://ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/technology-platforms/docs/acare-background-2010_en.pdf
GAO, Status of FAA’s Actions to Oversee the Safety of Composite Airplanes (Aviation Safety: US Government Accounting Office, Washington, DC, 2011), p. 50
J. Rouchon, Certification of large airplane composite structures, in Recent Progress and New Trends in Compliance Philosophy (ICAS, 1990), pp. 1439–1447
B. Szabo, R. Actis, Simulation governance: technical requirements for mechanical design. Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 249, 158–168 (2012)
D. Systems, ABAQUS Documentation 6.12. SIMULIA (2012)
M.L. Benzeggagh, M. Kenane, Measurement of mixed-mode delamination fracture toughness of unidirectional glass/epoxy composites with mixed-mode bending apparatus. Compos. Sci. Technol. 56, 439–449 (1996)
P.P. Camanho, C.G. Davila, Mixed-mode decohesion finite elements for the simulation of delamination in composite materials. NASA-Technical Paper 211737(1) (2002), p. 33
J. Lemaitre, J.-L. Chaboche, Mechanics of Solid Materials (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994)
S. Pinho, L. Iannucci, P. Robinson, Physically-based failure models and criteria for laminated fibre-reinforced composites with emphasis on fibre kinking: Part I: Development. Compos. A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 37(1), 63–73 (2006)
D.C. Fleming, Modelling composite crushing initiation using a cohesive element formulation. Int. J. Crash. 16(5), 475–485 (2011)
L.N. Chiu, B.G. Falzon, R. Boman, A continuum damage mechanics model for the analysis of the crashworthiness of composite structures: a work in progress, in Proceedings of the 15th Australian Aeronautical Conference, Melbourne (2013)
A. Puck, H. Schürmann, Failure analysis of FRP laminates by means of physically based phenomenological models. Compos. Sci. Technol. 58(7), 1045–1067 (1998)
G. Catalanotti, P.P. Camanho, A.T. Marques, Three-dimensional failure criteria for fiber-reinforced laminates. Compos. Struct. 95, 63–79 (2013)
M.V. Donadon et al., A progressive failure model for composite laminates subjected to low velocity impact damage. Comput. Struct. 86(11–12), 1232–1252 (2008)
W.H. Press, Numerical Recipes in Fortran 77: The Art of Scientific Computing, vol 1 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992)
A. Faggiani, B.G. Falzon, Predicting low-velocity impact damage on a stiffened composite panel. Compos. Part A 41(6), 737–749 (2010)
L. Raimondo et al., A progressive failure model for mesh-size-independent FE analysis of composite laminates subject to low-velocity impact damage. Compos. Sci. Technol. 72(5), 624–632 (2012)
W. Tan et al., Predicting low velocity impact damage and Compression-After-Impact (CAI) behaviour of composite laminates. Compos. Part A 71, 212–226 (2015)
ASTM, Standard Test Method for Mode I Interlaminar Fracture Toughness of Unidirectional Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites, in D5528-13, West Conshohocken, PA (2013)
A. Offringa, et al., Fiber reinforced thermoplastic butt joint development, in Proceedings of International SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition (2008)
ASTM, Mixed Mode I-Mode II Interlaminar Fracture Toughness of Unidirectional Fibre Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites, in D6671/D6671M-13e1, West Conshohocken, PA (2013)
S.T. Pinho, P. Robinson, L. Iannucci, Fracture toughness of the tensile and compressive fibre failure modes in laminated composites. Compos. Sci. Technol. 66(13), 2069–2079 (2006)
ASTM, Standard test method for plane strain fracture toughness of metallic materials, in E399-90, Philadelphia, PA (1993)
ASTM, Standard test method for measurement of fracture toughness, in ASTM E1820-15, West Conshohocken, PA (2015)
S. Jose et al., Intralaminar fracture toughness of a cross-ply laminate and its constituent sub-laminates. Compos. Sci. Technol. 61(8), 1115–1122 (2001)
M.W. Czabaj, J. Ratcliffe, Comparison of intralaminar and interlaminar mode-I fracture toughness of unidirectional IM7/8552 graphite/epoxy composite. Compos. Sci. Technol. 89, 15–23 (2012)
L. Feo, G. Marra, A.S. Mosallam, Stress analysis of multi-bolted joints for FRP pultruded composite structures. Compos. Struct. 94(12), 3769–3780 (2012)
F.P. van der Meer, C. Oliver, L.J. Sluys, Computational analysis of progressive failure in a notched laminate including shear nonlinearity and fiber failure. Compos. Sci. Technol. 70(4), 692–700 (2010)
D. Fanteria, G. Longo, E. Panettieri, A non-linear shear damage model to reproduce permanent indentation caused by impacts in composite laminates. Compos. Struct. 111, 111–121 (2014)
ASTM, Standard test method for shear properties of composite materials by V-notched rail shear method, in D7078/D7078M-12, West Conshohocken, PA (2012)
ASTM, Standard test method for shear properties of composite materials by the V-notched beam method, in D5379/D5379M-12, West Conshohocken, PA (2012)
ASTM, Standard test method for in-plane shear properties of polymer matrix composite materials by the rail shear method, in D4255/D4255M-15a, West Conshohocken, PA (2015)
S. Rivallant, C. Bouvet, N. Hongkarnjanakul, Failure analysis of CFRP laminates subjected to compression after impact: FE simulation using discrete interface elements. Compos. Part A 55, 83–93 (2013)
A.I.T. Method, Determination of Compression Strength after Impact, AITM 1-0010 (2010)
P. Prombut et al., Delamination of multidirectional composite laminates at 0°/θ° ply interfaces. Eng. Fract. Mech. 73(16), 2427–2442 (2006)
N. Hongkarnjanakul, C. Bouvet, S. Rivallant, Validation of low velocity impact modelling on different stacking sequences of CFRP laminates and influence of fibre failure. Compos. Struct. 106, 549–559 (2013)
H.A. Israr, S. Rivallant, J.J. Barrau, Experimental investigation on mean crushing stress characterization of carbon–epoxy plies under compressive crushing mode. Compos. Struct. 96, 357–364 (2013)
W. Tan, B.G. Falzon, M. Price, Predicting the crushing behaviour of composite material using high-fidelity finite element modelling. Int. J. Crashworthiness 20(1), 60–77 (2015)
M. Waimer et al., Experimental study of CFRP components subjected to dynamic crash loads. Compos. Struct. 105, 288–299 (2013)
S. Heimbs, F. Strobl, P. Middendorf, Integration of a composite crash absorber in aircraft fuselage vertical struts. Int. J. Veh. Struct. Syst. 3(2), 87–95 (2011)
P. Feraboli, Development of a corrugated test specimen for composite materials energy absorption. J. Compos. Mater. 42(3), 229–256 (2008)
W. Tan, B.G. Falzon, Modelling the nonlinear behaviour and fracture process of AS4/PEKK thermoplastic composite under shear loading. Compos. Sci. Technol. 126(1), 60–77 (2016)
Cytec, APC-2 PEKK Thermoplastic Polymer Technical Data Sheet, Cytec Engineering Materials (2012)
M. Dao, R.J. Asaro, On the critical conditions of kink band formation in fiber composites with ductile matrix. Scr. Mater. 34(11), 1771–1777 (1996)
W. Tan, Modelling the Behaviour of Composite Structures Under Impact and Crush Loading (Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, 2016)
G.C. Jacob et al., Energy absorption in polymer composites for automotive crashworthiness. J. Compos. Mater. 36(7), 813–850 (2002)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Falzon, B.G., Tan, W. (2017). Virtual Testing of Composite Structures: Progress and Challenges in Predicting Damage, Residual Strength and Crashworthiness. In: Beaumont, P., Soutis, C., Hodzic, A. (eds) The Structural Integrity of Carbon Fiber Composites. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46120-5_24
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46120-5_24
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-46118-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-46120-5
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)