Abstract
This chapter describes in detail (electrical, electronic, mechanical and signal processing characteristics) the various measuring instruments used in prospecting, i.e., the electrical current sources and field receivers. The transmitters are mobile dipoles of very low frequency able to deliver currents of several hundred amperes under the water, or even telluric sources caused by magnetic storms (solar wind) or atmospheric storms (Schumann resonance). Seabed fixed receivers are vector electrometers and magnetometers able to record the horizontal components of electric and magnetic fields in a bandwidth covering the frequencies of 0.01 to 10 Hz. The accuracies of these low noise instruments (several \( \mathrm{nV}/\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}} \)) are respectively about one \( \upmu \mathrm{V}/\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}/\mathrm{m} \) and one nT. Generally the signal-to-background noise ratio is very favorable to the detection and can reach a factor of 1000. Finally, we briefly mention the operational means and procedures with the different equipment and a few elements of signal processing used during the seabed logging survey.
The difference between theory and practice is that in theory there is no difference between theory and practice, but in practice, there is one.
(Jan Van de Snepscheut)
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
These instruments, such as SYSCAL pro Deep Marine, are generally marine versions of onshore resistivity meters (waterproof and treated against marine corrosion according to international standards). The reader may refer to conventional prospecting works (Koefoed 1979 and more recent works) and to the instructions of the manufacturers (Iris instruments, Scintrex, etc.) for more information on these materials.
- 2.
That is the tendency of the device to be closer to the actual value of the measured events. Errors affecting the correctness come from stable defects of the tool, poor or inadequate calibrations, a bad choice of scales of corrections, etc.
- 3.
The sensitivity is the ratio of the variations INPUT/OUTPUT.
- 4.
The metrological quality, which can be considered as the ability of the instrument to give consistent results for the requested requirements, also depends on many factors such as:
-
The uncertainty, which represents the amplitude of the field of measurements in which the true value is located with a given probability (degree of dispersion)
-
The repeatability, which is an in situ estimation of the accuracy. It is the difference between two distinct measurements of the same event, made under the same conditions and with the same sensor
-
The stability, which is the ability of the meter to give the same results in the same conditions
-
The reproducibility, which is the ability to differentiate two measures with the same method under the same conditions with different equipment and possibly different personnel, etc.
These intrinsic qualities can be evaluated theoretically for some of them and practically for others (calibration, control section, etc.). They can be related to reliability studies (fault tree or FT, mean time between failure or MTBF, etc.).
-
- 5.
Longer times correspond to magnetic surveys used in global geodynamics (very deep layers).
- 6.
Profiling in a continuous regime used, from the 1930s onward, wireline equipment (electrical coring), slightly modified, whose characteristic cables (named flute) was their tightness. The measuring equipment consisted of a potentiometer located on land or in a boat (see Introduction, photographs, Figs. 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9).
- 7.
At the same time, magnetic variometers of more or less long periods were built and tested (see Sect. 5.7).
- 8.
- 9.
In the future, the source may be contained in an AUV, which would have the advantage of removing the source from the surface means and could operate under any weather or bad oceanic conditions, or even under the ice.
- 10.
A parachute shaped and centrally holed flexible piece.
- 11.
The emission is on a spectrum that lies below the band ELF (extremely low frequency) reserved for underwater communications (military submarines), which extend to the ranges VLF (very low frequency) and LF (low frequency).
- 12.
Root mean square, or RMS, i.e., literally the square root of the mean square.
- 13.
It is a fundamental principle of the transmission of electrical energy (e.g., high power line).
- 14.
With this arrangement, it is more difficult to obtain high powers.
- 15.
We have seen (Appendix 2) that most of the energy is transmitted through this way.
- 16.
At the considered frequencies (LF), the resistance in the marine environment cannot be considered as an impedance. The capacity aspect is negligible in this case (see Appendix).
- 17.
It may be recalled here that the alternating current tends to flow in the periphery of the cable (skin) and all the more easily when the frequency is high.
- 18.
Ideally it is desirable to have perfect impedance matching between the different elements and emission bodies. The transformer can then automatically play that role especially when the electrical characteristics vary over time.
- 19.
A feature difficult to obtain for such length.
- 20.
The impedance is defined here as a function of angular frequency (ω).
- 21.
Flow of solar plasma from the coronal mass ejection (CME) of ionized gas escaping from the sun at speeds of more than 2000 km/s according to cycles of intense activity and more or less long quiet periods (of about 11 years).
- 22.
Geomagnetic usual unit: 1 γ is equal to 10−9 Tesla (T) or 1 nanoTesla (nT). 1 T is equal to 1 Wb/m2. The earth’s field in France has a total amplitude close to 50,000 γ and its horizontal component is about 20,000 γ.
- 23.
These variations have a pseudoperiodicity of 26 days, corresponding to the rotation period of the sun, and are limited to the illuminated face of the earth.
- 24.
An effect demonstrated for the first time in 1879 by British scientists from the Post Office Telegraph Services (Mathias et al. 1924).
- 25.
- 26.
Beyond that distance, the atmosphere acts as a filter. Below it, the long length electromagnetic waves are reflected.
- 27.
In a given direction, the average field is not determined by the derivative of the potential, but by a potential difference between two points.
- 28.
The contact between two different phases (liquid for seawater, solid for the electrodes) causes electrochemical phenomena at the interface, inducing electromotive parasitic forces. The electrodes of M/MCl (M for metal) type were preferentially chosen because of the presence of high concentrations of chloride ions (Cl−) in seawater. The electrodes of Ag/AgCl type have an annual drift of a few millivolts per year. We could also use the combination Pb/PbCl2. This one indeed has a lower drift of the order of 0.2 mV/month and a starting polarization of less than 0.2 mV with a thermal drift of about 200 μV/°C (Petiau 2000). These electrodes are used on MT NOMADE™ electrometers from Ifremer.
- 29.
The invention of the unpolarizable electrode or nonpolarizing electrode is due to the Italian Professor Matteucci for his studies on telegraphy (Matteucci 1862) and was more specifically applied to the exploration of ore deposits in 1882 by Barus in the USA (Barus 1882) and then in 1912 by Conrad Schlumberger for the method of spontaneous polarization or the PS method (Schlumberger 1913).
- 30.
The mechanism of unpolarizable electrodes is based on Nernst’s formulation (see Ives and Janz 1961).
- 31.
The advantage of the differential amplifier lies in the fact that its inputs are perfectly matched thanks to the symmetrical arrangement. This has the effect of almost completely compensating for drifts of low periods. This device also has the advantage of eliminating similar parasitic voltages simultaneously affecting the two inputs of the amplifier stage. At this point one can choose differential amplifiers with floating inputs and incorporated gain whose output voltage relative to the mass of the electronic system is directly proportional to the difference of the input voltages. Current technologies allow us to produce this kind of amplifier. These amplifiers also have programmable gains up to 1000, which allow us to raise tension very quickly without significantly affecting the signal by the instrumental noises that would occasion a conventional amplifier chain. For example, one can use a precison instrumentation amplifier, such as the Analog Devices AD624.
- 32.
Electromechanical or electronic switching allowing us to modulate the signal to a higher frequency and to restore it at the end of amplification by synchronous demodulation (Schwartz 1959). This eliminates then more or less long term drifts, characterizing, among others, electrochemical noises.
- 33.
The sampling frequency is here dependent on the speed of movement of the transmitter and on the depth of immersion of the measuring devices, and partly sets the longitudinal resolution.
- 34.
It is the same for the towed equipment.
- 35.
- 36.
- 37.
Incidentally, I would like to thank very briefly the Schlumberger company, its subsidiary WesternGeco and especially its engineers, for, after 30 years, funding my research works and those of my colleagues, of interest … I hope therefore that the rigor and honesty that usually drive scientists will allow us to finally restore, in all objectivity, the scientific contributions of each.
- 38.
The idea to channel the current through the sensor (ferromagnetic core) was included in the development of a magnetic sensor (Baxendale 1989).
- 39.
We can use, for example, numerical resolution methods such as the finite element method (adapted to the nonlinear medium) or the boundary integral method, under the Neumann boundary conditions for the insulating part of the electrometer and the Dirichlet boundary conditions for the conductive portion of the electrodes. In 3D, this method has the advantage of taking into account the volume current density.
- 40.
Below 1 Hz the noise level increases, particularly when the detector is used in mMT (see below).
- 41.
This is generally the case for all passive detection methods and methods for listening to EM natural noises where a signal of very small amplitude is often drowned in high background noise.
- 42.
For more information on noise measurement protocols, the reader may refer to the thesis of Mr. Urbain Rakotosoa UMPC (Rakotosoa 1989).
- 43.
Moreover, these systems may have common telemetry devices, treatment, etc. (similar transfer frequencies).
- 44.
- 45.
Processing by amplitude demodulation.
- 46.
Prevents return current loops between transmitters and receivers, and galvanic couplings.
- 47.
Vertical seismic profile.
- 48.
Magnetic resonance equipment in rubidium vapor (Bloom 1962), potassium vapor developed at ENS Paris in the late 1960s (Mosnier 1967) or cesium vapor. The principle of these magnetometers is based on optical pumping and the Zeeman effect. Electrons in the atoms of a gas follow different orbits representing highter or lower energy levels. In an external magnetic field, these energy levels are split into energy sublevels or Zeeman states. The energy differences of the states are proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. Generally, the sensing component consists of an element vapor lamp, a filter to select one spectral line, a circular polarizer, a vapor cell and a photocell.
- 49.
The normal components only change the field at the second order.
- 50.
Recently CNES and ESA have used on their observation satellites (Swarm constellation) vector magnetometers calibrated by a pumping helium 4 scalar magnetometer (operation of the Zeeman effect) capable of measuring absolute magnitudes (without drift and bias) of the three components of the magnetic field (provider: CEA-LETI Grenoble).
- 51.
The intensity of the magnetizing field M and the magnetic field H are related by the relation of proportionality: M = χ m H, where χm is the magnetic susceptibility of the material, i.e., its ability to magnetize, and is equal to: χ m = μr − 1.
- 52.
The reader will find in the literature all the information necessary for the understanding of these instruments, widely used in the fields of submarine detection and geophysics (Delcourt 1990).
- 53.
These magnetometers are briefly described in numerous applied geophysics works. The reader will find, however, a comprehensive description of these materials in the work of Dr. Geyger (Geyger 1964).
- 54.
Circular coils placed on either side of the conductive amagnetic clevis carrying the magnet, in which an electric current flows.
- 55.
SQUID: superconducting quantum interference device. We can also imagine the use of the radiofrequency SQUID working at high temperature and developed in the late 1990s (Fagaly 2006).
- 56.
Institut national des sciences de l’univers (National Institute of Sciences of the Universe): the French state agency responsible for coordinating research activities in the fields of earth sciences, oceans and space.
- 57.
Geophysical Research Centre of Garchy of CNRS, based in the Nièvre state (France).
- 58.
It is related to the travel speed v of the source (1.5–2 knots) and given by v/f a . For example, at a speed of 1 m/s, and an acquisition at 1 Hz, the resolution will be 1 m. For a typical survey, during towing, data are collected at a spacing of 10–20 ms.
- 59.
Note that frequencies above half the sampling frequency (or Nyquist frequency: f N = f a /2) generally introduce spectral overlapping, called aliasing. To remove this effect, before the sampling operation, we place a low pass analog filter or anti-aliasing filter whose cutoff frequency is then the highest frequency to be recorded.
- 60.
There are several types of ADC, such as converters with weighted resistances, double-ramp converters, successive approximation converters, sigma/delta converters, or even-flash converters.
- 61.
For further information, the reader can refer to books concerning works on measurement systems (Paratte and Robert 1996).
- 62.
This in some way evaluates the mess in the data entry system. The entropy can be defined as a function proportional to the logarithm of the probability of a sequence of average data corresponding to a message, a sequence or a signature. The main interest of entropy is its additivity property. Indeed, when two signatures are composed, their probabilities are multiplied and their entropies are added. As, on other hand, amounts of information are also added, it is clear that the entropy is a convenient measure of the detectable amount of information and, more specifically, that which is necessary to describe its location and complexity.
- 63.
The notion of POD was introduced in 1947 following the work, during the Second World War, on radar (Marcum 1947; Woodward 1953). These studies were designed to determine the probability of an event on the basis of hypothesis tests run from an objective criterion whose result was estimated by the joint probability of two types of errors with an antagonistic behavior (ignorance or appearance upon the detection of an event). Therefore, these works have been amplified as covering all areas of detection at large (Grigorakis 1997). In the oil sector, POD is mainly used for the processing of data for pipeline inspection by instrumented pigs (Sainson 2010).
- 64.
Discrete spectral representation of the sampled signal (delimited time window).
- 65.
We must remember that this process is legitimate only when the stationary character is present to a degree sufficient for the desired accuracy. This remark is essential to understand the limitations of these methods.
- 66.
The autocorrelation developed in the late 1940s (Bode and Shannon 1950) is used as a function of time f(t) to measure the statistical dependence of a value f(t + τ) in relation to an initial value f(t). Then the autocorrelation maintains the frequency information but loses the phase information. It is a kind of similarity indicator between two fairly similar samples of the same signal, separated by t, and is constructed by convolving them together. If the random function f(t) is known up to time t, the possibilities of variation are then distributed according to a beam of more or less divergent curves.
- 67.
For example, to the input of an amplifier, an infinitely short pulse characterized in this case by a Dirac can only give a signal spread in time (called an impulse response). The purpose of the convolution operation, which mathematically corresponds to a product, then consists of determining the shape of the output signal (of any sort and deformed by the meter), knowing in advance the impulse response of the system (assumed to be linear).
- 68.
The reader will find additional information in the technical literature (Smith and Smith 1996).
- 69.
This chain is similar to all radio localization oceanographic devices.
- 70.
Underwater drones are already used for the monitoring of offshore installations such as wellheads and pipelines. For now, these robots have a mission of supervisory and long distance observation unlike ROVs (wire guided) dedicated to local tasks.
- 71.
In this case, the resultant field is the sum of the fields generated by the different sources (superposition principle).
References
Aldridge B (2001) ELF history. Extreme low frequency communication. Pacific Life Research Center. PLRC-941005B, 6 p
Alumbaugh DI et al (2010) Surveying using vertical electromagnetic sources that are towed along with survey receivers. US patent no. 2010/0013485 Jan. 21
Babour K et al (2008) Methods of electromagnetic logging using a current focusing receiver. Patent PCT WO 2008/121772
Babour K et al (2009) Sensor cable for electromagnetic surveying. Patent PCT WO 2009/0295394
Baicry M (2015a) Performance improvement of a current based marine electrometer. In: Marelec conference, Philadelphia, USA, 18 June
Baicry M (2015b) Etude d’un magnéto-électromètre marin: conception, dimensionnement optimisé et réalisation d’un prototype. PhD thesis, Grenoble University, 11 Dec, 148 p
Balser M, Wagner C (1962) Observations of earth–ionosphere cavity resonances. Nature 638:641
Barus CW (1882) US geological survey, mon. 3, pp 309–367 and 400–404
Baxendale JE (1989) Underwater electric field sensor. UK patent no. 8726908
Bennett WR, Davey JR (1965) Data transmission. Ed McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 136–137
Besson C et al (2009a) Systems and methods for calibrating an electromagnetic receiver. Patent PCT WO 2009/006077
Besson C et al (2009b) Methods for electromagnetic measurements and correction of non-ideal receiver responses. Patent PCT WO 2009/0001985
Besson C et al (2010) Methods for electromagnetic measurements and correction of non-ideal receiver responses. Patent PCT WO 2009/0001985
Bleil DF (1964) Natural electromagnetic phenomena below 30 kc/s. Ed. Plenum Press, New York, 470 p
Bloom AL (1962) Applied optics. p 61
Boda M, Coillot C, Sainson S (2014) Electromagnetic sensor for SMS geophysical survey. Concours mondial de l’innovation 2030, Paris
Bode HW, Shannon CE (1950) Linear least square smoothing and prediction theory. Bell Telephone Laboratories, technical publications, monograph B-1732. Ed. The Bell System Technical Journal, 9 p
Brahtz JP et al (1968) Ocean engineering. Physical and hydrodynamic factors. Ed. Wiley, Chichester, p 204
Bruxelle JY (1995) Analyse de la propagation électromagnétique en milieu marin et méthode de localisation spatiale d’une source dipolaire. Doctoral thesis, Université de Lille
Bruxelle JY (1997) Electric field measurement at sea. In: Ocean 97 MTS/IEEE conference proceedings, vol 1, pp 547–550
Burrows ML (1978) ELF communications antennas. Ed. Peter Peregrinus, Stevenage, 245 p
Chave AD, Jones AG (2012) The magnetotelluric method. Theory and practice. Ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 437–440
Chave AD, Luther DS (1990) Low frequency, motionally induced electromagnetic fields in the ocean. J Geophys Res 95, n c5:7185–7200
Chave AD, Constable SC, Edwards RN (1991) Electrical exploration methods for the sea floor. Electromagnetic methods in applied geophysics, vol 2, Chap. 12. Ed. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa, pp 931–966
Coillot C, Moutoussamy J, Boda M, Leroy P (2014) New ferromagnetic core shapes for induction sensors. J Sensors Sensor Syst
Constable S (2010) Ten years of marine CSEM for hydrocarbon exploration. Geophysics 75(5):75A67–75A81
Constable S (2013) Instrumentation for marine magnetotelluric and controlled source electromagnetic sounding. Geophys Prospect 61(Suppl 1):505–532
Constable SC, Snrka LJ (2007) An introduction to marine controlled source electromagnetic methods for hydrocarbon exploration. Geophysics 72(2). Ed. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa.
Constable S et al (1998a) Marine magnetotellurics for petroleum exploration. Part 1: sea-floor equipment system. Geophysics 63(3):816–825
Constable SC et al (1998b) Seafloor magneto-telluric system and method for oil exploration. US patent no. 5770945
Cox C (1981) Electromagnetic active source sounding near the East Pacific Rise. Geophys Res Lett 8:1043–1046
Cox C et al (1971) Electromagnetic studies of ocean currents and electrical below the ocean floor. The sea, vol 4 part 1. Ed. Wiley Inter-Science, pp 637–693
Cox C et al (1973) Plate tectonics and geomagnetic reversal. Ed. Freeman, San Francisco, 702 p
Cox C et al (1978) Electromagnetic fluctuations induced by wind waves on the deep sea floor. J Geophys Res 83:431–442
Cox C et al (1981) An active source EM method for the sea floor. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, CA, Technical report
Cuevas NH, Alumbaugh D (2011) Near source response of a resistive layer to a horizontal or vertical electric dipole excitiation. Geophysics 76(6):F353–F371
Davidson PA (2009) Cable type electromagnetic receiver system for subsurface exploration. US patent no. 7602191
Dehart RC (1969) External pressure structures. In: Handbook of ocean and underwater engineering, pp 9.3–9.20
Delcourt JJ (1990) Magnétisme terrestre. Masson, Paris
D’Eu JF, Cairns G, Tarits P, Jegen Kulscar M, Dubreuil A (2006) Dispositif de mesure géophysique pour l’exploration des ressources naturelles du sol en domaine aquatique. Brevet français no. 2896044
Dlamini VE (2010) Electromagnetic wave sensor for seabed logging using the fluxgate technology. Universiti teknologi Petronas, Perak
Drever RG, Sanford TB (1970) A free fall electromagnetic current meter. Instrumentation. Proceeding of the IERE conference on electronic engineering in ocean technology, pp 353–370
Durand P, Mosnier J (1977) Magnétomètre sous-marin pour l’étude des composantes horizontales du champ transitoire. Annales de géophysique, Tome 33, fac.4, pp 519–526
EMGS (2015) EMGS transmitter system Self Xpress, 2 p
Fagaly RL (2006) Superconducting quantum interference device instruments and applications. Rev Sci Instrum 77:100101. doi:10.1063/1.2354545
Filloux JH (1967) An ocean bottom D component magnetometer. Geophysics 32(6)
Filloux JH (1970) Magnetometer utilizing a mirror and a magnet the latter being movable relative to said mirror to a connect and disconnect position. US patent no. 3508142, 21 April
Filloux JH (1973a) Oceanic electric currents, geomagnetic variations, and the deep electrical conductivity of the ocean-continent transition of central California. PhD thesis, University of California, San Diego
Filloux JH (1973b) Techniques and instrumentation for study of natural electromagnetic induction at sea. Phys Earth Planet Inter 7:323–328
Filloux JH (1974) Electrical field recording on the seafloor with short span instruments. J Geomag Geoelec 26:269–279
Filloux JH (1977) Ocean floor magneto-telluric sounding over North Central Pacific. Nature 269:297–301
Filloux JH (1978a) Observation of very low frequency electromagnetic signals in the ocean. Advances in earth and planetary sciences, vol 9. Ed. U. Schmucker, pp 1–12
Filloux J H (1978b) North Pacific magneto-telluric experiments. Advances in earth and planetary sciences, vol 9. Ed. U. Schmucker, pp 33–43
Filloux JH et al (1985) The Tasman project of sea floor magnetotelluric exploration. In: 4th ASEG conference, pp 221–224
Fleury P, Mathieu JP (1958) Courants alternatifs ondes hertziennes. Ed. M Eyrolles, Paris, pp 250–251
Galejs J (1965) Admittance of insulated loop antennas in a dissipative medium. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagation, vol Ap.3 no. 2, pp 229–235
Geyger WA (1964) Non linear magnetic control devices. Basic principles, characteristics and applications. Ed. McGraw-Hill, London, pp 328–378
Goldman S (1948) Frequency analysis, modulation and noise. Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 381–403
Grigorakis A (1997) Application of detection theory to the measurement of the minimum detectable signal for a sinusoid in gaussian noise displayed on a lofargram. DSTO-TR-0568. Aeronautical and Maritime Research Laboratory, Melbourne, 48 p
Hallan A (1976) Une révolution dans les sciences de la terre: de la dérive des continents à la tectonique des plaques. Ed. du Seuil, Paris
Harvey RR (1974) Derivation of oceanic water motions from measurement of the vertical electric field. J Geophys Res 79(30):4512–4516
Havsgard GB et al (2011) Low noise Ag/AgCl electric field sensor system for marine CSEM and MT applications. Geoservices ASA
Heinson G, Constable S, White A (2000) Episodic melt transport at a mid-ocean ridge inferred from magnetotelluric sounding. Geophys Res Lett 27:2317–2320
Hekinian R (2014) Sea floor exploration. Springer, New York, 293 p
Holten T, Flekkoy EG, Singer B, Blixt EM, Hanssen A, Maloy KJ (2009) Vertical source, vertical receiver electromagnetic technique for offshore hydrocarbon exploration. First Break 27:89–93
Hutton VRS (1976) The electrical conductivity of the earth and planets. Rep Prog Phys 39(6):513–515
Ivanoff A (1975) Introduction à l’océanographie. Propriétés deseaux de mer, 2 vol. Ed. Vuibert, Paris
Ives DJ, Janz GJ (1961) Reference electrodes: theory and practice. Academic, New York, 651 p
Jacobs JA et al (1987–1991) Geomagnetism, 4 vols. Ed. Academic Press
Jennison RC (1961) Fourier transforms and convolution for the experimentalist. Pergamon, New York
Johnson JB (1928) Thermal agitation of electricity in conductors. Phys Rev 32:97–109
Jones AG (1983) The problem of current channelling: a critical review. Geophys Surv 6:79–122
Kaufman AA, Keller GV (1981) The magnetotelluric sounding method. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 596 p
Key K, Lockwood A (2010) Determining the orientation of marine CSEM receivers using orthogonal procrustes rotation analysis. Geophysics 75(3)
Khesin BE et al (1996) Interpretation of geophysical fields in complicated environment. Kluwer Academic, Dordercht, 368 p
King JW, Newman WS et al (1967) Solar-terrestrial physics. Ed. Academic, New York, pp 107–211
Kittel C, Kroemer H (1995) Thermal physics. Ed. Freeman, San Francisco, pp 98–102
Koefoed O (1979) Geosounding principles, 1: resistivity sounding measurements. Methods in geochemistry and geophysics. Ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 7–18
Kong FN et al (2009) Casing effects in the sea-to-borehole electromagnetic method. Geophysics 14(5):F77–F87
Kraichman MB (1962) Impedance of a circular loop in an infinite conductive medium. J Res Nat Bur Std D 66(4):499–503
Kuvshinov A, Olsen N (2005) Modelling the ocean effect of geomagnetic storms at ground and satellite altitude. Earth observation with CHAMP. Ed. Springer, Berlin, pp 353–358
Lanzagorta M (2012) Underwater communications. Synthesis lecture on communications. Morgan and Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, 115 p
Lanzagorta M (2013) Underwater communications. Synthesis lectures on communications. Ed. Morgan & Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, 130 p
Latour P, Toniazzi C (1990) Magnetic detection: detection for the future? In: Undersea defence technology conference proceedings, UDT 90, London, 7–9 Feb, pp 71–76
Launay et al (1964) ULF environment of the sea floor. In: Symposium of the ULF electromagnetic fields. Paper no. 13, Boulder, Colorado
Law LK (1978) An ocean bottom magnetometer: design and first deployment near the Explorer Ridge (abstract). Eos Trans AGU 59:235
Leedert et al (2009). Signal generator for electromagnetic that produces a signal having an analog continuous waveform. WesternGeco. US patent no. 2009/0243614, 1 October
Lindqvist UP (2012) Method and system for calibrating streamer electrodes in a marine electromagnetic survey system. US patent no. 8,198,899
Lokken JE (1964) Instrumentation for receiving electromagnetic noise below 3,000 cps. Natural electromagnetic phenomena below 30 kc/s. Ed. Plenum Press, New York, pp 373–416
Loseth LO (2007) Modelling of controlled source electromagnetic data. PhD thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technologies
Loseth LO et al (2006) Low frequency electromagnetic fields in applied geophysics: waves or diffusion? Geophysics 71(4):W29–W40
Madden T (1964) Spectral, cross-spectral and bispectral analysis of low frequency electromagnetic data. Natural electromagnetic phenomena below 30 kc/s. Ed. Plenum Press, New York, pp 429–448
Mangelsdorf PC (1968) Gulf Stream transport measurements using the salt bridge GEK and Loran navigation. Trans Am Geophys Un 49:198
Marcum JI (1947) A statistical theory of target detection by Pulsed Radar. ASTIA document no AD 100287. Research memorandum, vol 754. Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, 418 p
Mathias E et al (1924) Traité d’électricité atmosphérique et tellurique. Ed. Presses universitaires de France, Paris, pp 468–469
Matteucci C (1862) Sur les courants électriques observés dans les fils télégraphiques. CRAS 55:264–266
Mattson J, Anderson C (2010) Toward the integration of electromagnetic and seismic survey. Offshore Magazine, May
Mattson J et al (2011) Marine resistivity streamer survey produces high-quality data in the North Sea. World Oil 232:25–40
Mattsson J, Englemark F, Anderson C (2013) Towed streamer EM: the challenges of sensitivity and anisotropy. First Break 31:155–159
McKay A, Bergh, KF, Bhuiyan AH (2014) Determining resistivity from towed streamer EM data using unconstrained inversion. Tie to well and discovery examples. 76th EAGE annual conference & exhibition, Extended abstracts
McKay A, Mattsson J, Du Z (2015) Towed streamer EM reliable recovery of sub-surface resistivity. First Break 33:75–85, April
Merill J (2002) A history of extremely low frequency (ELF) submarine radio communications. Ed. Strong Books, an imprint of Publishing Directions, 96 p
Mittet R, Shaug-Pettersen T (2007) Shaping optimal transmitter waveforms for marine CSEM surveys. SEG San Antonio annual meeting, pp 539–543
Mittet R et al (2007) On the orientation and absolute phase of marine CSEM receivers. Geophysics 72(4):145–155
Mosnier J (1967) Application des techniques de pompage optique à l’étude des gradients géométriques, cas particulier de l’effet bord de mer. Doctoral thesis, ENS de Paris, Laboratoire de physique, p 4
Mosnier J (1970a). Variomètre sensible pour l’étude pour l’étude de la déclinaison : étude théorique. Annales de la géophysique. Tome 26
Mosnier J (1970b) Les magnétomètres sensibles améliorent notre connaissance du champ magnétique terrestre. Gauthier Villars, pp 75–80
Mosnier J (1974) Dispositif et mesure du champ magnétique terrestre. Brevet français no. 74 15502
Mosnier J (1984) Device for measuring an electric field in a fluid conductor, and method using such a device. CNRS. Brevet français no. FR19840019577
Mosnier J (1986) La détection magnétique des navires. Aspect géophysique. Revue: L’armement. NS no. 4 September, pp 140–149
Mosnier J, Yvetot P (1972) Nouveau type de variomètre asservi en direction. Annales de géophysique. Tome 28
Mosnier J, Yvetot P (1977) Nouveau type de variomètre à asservissement de champ et capteur capacitif. Annales de géophysique, Tome 33, fac. 3, pp 391–396
Nickolaenko A (2013) Schumann resonance for tyros: essentials of global electromagnetic resonance in the earth–ionosphere cavity. Springer Japan, Tokyo
Noorhana Y, Nadeem N, Majid Niaz A, Muhammad K, Hasnah Mohd Z, Afza S (2012) Modeling of antenna for deep target hydrocarbon exploration. J Electromagn Anal Appl 4:30–41
Northrop RB (1989) Analog electronic circuits: analysis and applications. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, pp 251–253
Nyquist H (1928) Thermal agitation of electricity charge in conductors. Phys Rev 32:110–116
Paratte PA, Robert P (1996) Systèmes de mesure. Traité d’électricité, vol 17. Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, Lausanne
Parkinson WD (1983) Introduction to geomagnetism. Ed. Scottish Academic Press Ltd, Edinburgh, p 6
Petiau G (2000) Second generation of lead-lead chloride electrodes for geophysical applications. Pure Appl Geophys 157:357–382
PGS (2010) A prototype electromagnetic streamer: latest advance. Tech link. vol 8, no. 8. Ed. PGS.
Pittman EP, Stanford RA (1972) Electric field sensor. US patent no. 3,641,427, Feb
Porstendorfer G (1960) Tellurik. Grundlagen, Messtechnik und neue Einsatzmoglichkeiten. Ed. Akademie Verlag, Berlin, pp 24–26
Porstendorfer G (1975) Principles of magneto-telluric prospecting. Geopublication associates. Ed. Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, p 97
Rakotosoa U (1989) Appareillage de mesure des très faibles champs électriques en milieu marin: application à la mise en évidence des signaux électromagnétiques induits dans la mer. Doctoral thesis, Université Paris 6, Pierre et Marie Curie, 98 p
Reich E et Swerling P (1953) The detection of a sine wave in Gaussian noise. J Appl Phys 24:289–296
Rosa EB (1908) The self and mutual inductance of linear conductors. Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC
Roth F, Lie JE, Panzner M, Gabri PT (2013) Improved target imaging with a high-power deck-mounted CSEM source—a field example from the North Sea. In: 75th EAGE conference & exhibition incorporating SPE EUROPEC 2013, London, UK, 10–13 June
Rowe HE (1965) Signals and noise in communication systems. Ed. Van Nostrand, Princeton, p 78
Sainson S (1982) Etude des champs électriques transverses: électromètre à ddp et à densité de courant pour la détection d’anomalie de conductivité dans un milieu conducteur de l’électricité. Rapport Laboratoire de géophysique appliquée ENS/CNRS, 30 p
Sainson S (1984) Etude d’une méthode de détection électrique d’anomalies conductrices voisines d’un forage. Doctoral thesis in geophysics, Université d’Orléans, 177 p
Sainson S (2007) Inspection en ligne des pipelines : principes et méthodes. Ed. Lavoisier, Paris, 332 p
Sainson S (2010) Les diagraphies de corrosion. Ed. Tec et Doc Lavoisier, Paris, 547 p
Sainson S (2016) A current density electrometer to explore ore bodies and subsea hydrocarbons (forthcoming)
Schlumberger C (1913) Procédé d’investigation du sous-sol. Brevet français no. 457.661
Scholl C, Edwards RN (2007) Marine downhole to seafloor dipole–dipole electromagnetic methods and the resolution of resistive targets. Geophysics 72 p. WA 39
Schumann WO (1948) Elektrische wellen. Hanser, Munchen, 324 p
Schumann WO (1952) Über die Dämpfung der elektromagnetischen Eigenschwingnugen des Systems Erde/Luft/Ionosphäre. Zeitschrift und Naturforschung 7a:250–252
Schumann WO, Koenig H (1954) Uber die Beobachtung von Atmospherics bei geringsten Frequenzen. Die Naturwiss. Heft 8, Jg.41, pp 183–184
Schwartz M (1959) Information transmission, modulation and noise. A unified approach to communication systems. Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 160–167
Selzer E (1968) Mesures électromagnétiques effectuées en mer profonde _a l’aide du bathyscaphe Archime`de: campagne de Gre`ce. Ann Inst Oceanogr 46:19–28
Selzer E (1972) Variations rapides du champ magnétique terrestre. Handbuch der Physik. Geophysik III Teil IV. Ed. Springer, Berlin, p 327
Selzer E et al (1966) Compte rendu d’enregistrements électromagnétiques _a très basses fréquences fait en bathyscaphe en eaux profondes. Agard Conf Proc 20:595–606
Sinha MC, Patel PD, Unsworth MJ, Owen TRE, Mac-Cormack MRJ (1990) An active source EM sounding system for marine use. Marine Geophy Res 12:59–68
Smith MS, Smith WW (1996) Handbook of real-time fast Fourier transforms: algorithm. Ed. IEEE, 468 p
Soderberg EF (1966) Undersea ELF measurements of the horizontal E-field to depth of 300 meters. Agard conference proceedings no. 20, pp 453–470
Soderberg EF (1969) ELF noise in the sea at depth of 30 to 300 meters. J Geophys Res Space Phys 74:2376–2387
Sunde ED (1949) Earth conduction effects in transmission systems. Ed. Van Nostran, New York, p 71
Surkov V, Hayakawa M (2014) Ultra and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields. Ed. Springer, Tokyo, pp 57–106
Swidinsky A (2011) Transient electromagnetic modelling and imaging of thin resistive structures: applications for gas hydrate assessment. PhD thesis, University of Toronto, p. 16 and 128
Tenghamn SRL et al (2010) Receiver streamer system and method for marine electromagnetic surveying. US patent no. 7834632, 16 Nov
Tschauner J (1963) Introduction à la théorie des systèmes échantillonnés. Dunod Orléans, Paris
Um ES (2005) On the physics of galvanic source electromagnetic geophysical methods for terrestrial and marine exploration. University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, 428 p
Vacquier V (1972) Geomagnetism in marine geology. Elsevier oceanography series, vol 6. Ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 28–30
Wait JR (1957) Insulated loop antenna immersed in a conductive medium. J Res Nat Bur Std 59(2):133–137
Wait JR (1972) Projet Sanguine. Science 178:272
Wait JR (1996) Electromagnetic waves in stratified media. Chap. 6. Ed. IEEE Press
Webb SC, Constable SC, Cox CS, Deaton TK (1985) A seafloor field electric instrument. J Geomag Geoelectr 37:1115–1129
Woodward PM (1953) Probability and information theory, with Application to Radar. Ed. Pergamon Press, 128 p
Young DP, Cox C (1981) Electromagnetic active source sounding near the East Pacific Rise. Geophys Res Lett 8:1043–1046
Yvetot P (1980) Réalisation d’un variomètre horizontal à asservissement de champ et capteur capacitif. Mémoire de DESS. Université Paris VI, Paris
Zach JJ, Frenkel MA, Ostved-Ghazy AM, de Lugao P, Ridyard D (2009) Marine CSEM methods for 3D hydrocarbon field mapping and monitoring. Socieda de brasileira de geofisica. In: 11 th international congress of the Brazilian geophysical society, 6 p
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Sainson, S. (2017). Instrumentation and Equipment. In: Electromagnetic Seabed Logging. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45355-2_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45355-2_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-45353-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-45355-2
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)