Abstract
Australia has progressed rapidly from a collection of British Colonies to an advanced first world economy with an enviable democratic system of governance. However, despite embracing modernity and supporting peace and justice initiatives elsewhere, Australia has struggled to come to terms with its own First Peoples. The Colonial story begins with English ‘settler’ claims to have settled an empty land in the late 1700s. The nation has, however, made progress in this area. It acknowledged that the common law recognised that Australia was indeed populated by civilised peoples, possessing a civilisation stretching back 60,000 years or more, when the British Crown first claimed sovereignty over the Continent. This is not however, the end of the story. There are still many milestones to be reached and passed. The next of these milestones, now that the law recognises its First People, is for Australia to recognise Indigenous People in its Constitution . This chapter will briefly examine the history of Indigenous recognition in Australia, including an analysis of the barriers and challenges to such recognition. The chapter concludes that such recognition is imperative if Australia wants to promote peace and to hold its head up high in among the States of the International Community. Today, the two rivers, black and white, run separately and unequally; perhaps tomorrow their waters will be equal and one.
Dr. Asmi Wood LLB (Hons.) is a senior lecturer at the College of Law, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia; Email: asmi.wood@anu.edu.au. He is a practising barrister and solicitor. His research interests include Indigenous legal and spiritual issues, law and religion. He is a member of the National Indigenous Research and Knowledges Network (NIRAKN) funded by the Australian Research Council.
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Notes
- 1.
In 1981 there were at least 67 classifications to determine who is an Aboriginal person: Department of Aboriginal Affairs, Report on a Review of the Administration of the Working Definition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders (1981), Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra; See also J Gardiner-Garden, The Definition of Aboriginality: Research Note 18, 2000–01 (2000) Parliament of Australia, 2.
- 2.
While there have been some 250 distinct Indigenous language groups recorded, from a possible 700 prior to colonialism, for ease of reading this chapter will refer them in the singular.
- 3.
Hereinafter referred to simply as the Constitution.
- 4.
Stephanie Anderson, ‘Tony Abbott has floated a date for a referendum to recognise indigenous people in the constitution, but failed to commit to a timeline.’ SBS News 11 December 2014. <imgsrc=“http://www.sbs.com.au/news/sites/sbs.com.au.news/files/styles/thumb_small/public/stepohanie_anderson_0.jpg?itok=GSsEqkqF&mtime=1424987345” itemprop=”image/> [Accessed 29 May 2015].
- 5.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 30–33 (Brennan J.).
- 6.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 31 (Brennan J.).
- 7.
Mount Isa Mines Ltd v Pusey (1970) 125 CLR 383, 395 (Windeyer J).
- 8.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 31 (Brennan J.).
- 9.
The Australian Constitution s 127 (Repealed in 1967).
- 10.
The Australian Constitution s 51(xxvi).
- 11.
Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1, 70.
- 12.
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337. Transcript of 5 February 1998. Grifith QC’s response to Kirby J. Cited in Tony Blackshield and George Williams ‘Australian constitutional Law and theory Commentary and Materials’ (Sydney, Federation Press 5th ed 2010), 985.
- 13.
Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd (1971) 17 FLR 141.
- 14.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1.
- 15.
Native Title Act 1993 (Cth).
- 16.
The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Recognition Act 2013 (Cth).
- 17.
Jonathon Gul, ‘Constitutional recognition of Indigenous people ‘racist’: [Senator] David Leyonhjelm’, 5 March 2015, ABC (Australia) News.
- 18.
Mansell, M, ‘The Court gives an inch but takes another mile’ Aboriginal Law Bulletin Vol 2, No. 57, August 1992.
- 19.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 29.
- 20.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 29.
- 21.
Patricia Karvelas: Historic Constitution vote over indigenous recognition facing hurdles, The Australian, 20 January 2012.
- 22.
Joint Select Committee on Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (JSCATSI, ‘the Committee’) of June 2015 (‘Final Report’).
- 23.
The Australian Constitution s 128.
- 24.
The Australian Constitution s 128.
- 25.
The Australian Constitution ss 25, 51(xxvi).
- 26.
Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 153 CLR 168.
- 27.
Ss 25 and 51(xxvi) The Australian Constitution.
- 28.
It is worth noting that there is a significant ‘gap’ in Australia between Indigenous people and others on most social and economic indicators, and much of this can arguably be linked to 200 years of unequal treatment.
- 29.
Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455: Here however, the case was not one specifically of racial equality but equality generally.
- 30.
Official Report of the Debates of the Australian Federal Convention, Melbourne 8 February 1898, 664.
- 31.
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337, 361 (Gaudron).
- 32.
John Gardiner-Garden, The 1967 referendum: history and myths, Research brief (Australia. Parliamentary Library); 2006–7, no. 11), 7.
- 33.
John Gardiner-Garden, The 1967 referendum: history and myths, Research brief (Australia. Parliamentary Library); 2006–7, no. 11), 4.
- 34.
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337.
- 35.
The Report of the Expert Panel, ‘Recognising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in the Constitution’, January 2012.
- 36.
Joint Select Committee on Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (JSCATSI, ‘the Committee’) of July 2014 (‘Interim Report’).
- 37.
Joint Select Committee on Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (JSCATSI, ‘the Committee’) of June 2015 (‘Final Report’).
- 38.
Final Report, 88 (Recommendation 10).
- 39.
J Gillard, B Brown & others, [Agreement to Form Government], the Australian Greens and the Australian Labor Party (‘the Parties’)—agreement signed on 1 September 2010, 2.
- 40.
Kirsty Magarey & John Gardiner-Garden, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Recognition Bill 2012, Bills Digest No 74 2012–2013, 11 February 2013, 10.
- 41.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Recognition Act 2013 (Cth) Section 4(1). (‘2013 Recognition Act’).
- 42.
The Panel Report, 117.
- 43.
The Panel Report, 173: The Panel also recommended a close nexus between 51A and the proposed new Section 116A, particularly s 116A(2).
- 44.
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337.
- 45.
Patricia Karvelas, “Historic Constitution vote over indigenous recognition facing hurdles,” The Australian, 20 January 2012. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/policy/historic-constitution-vote-over-indigenous-recognition-facing-hurdles/story-fn9hm1pm-1226248879375.
- 46.
‘UN human rights envoy James Anaya: NT intervention is racist’, The Australian 28 August, 2009. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/un-human-rights-envoy-james-anaya-nt-intervention-is-racist/story-e6frg6n6-1225767082240.
- 47.
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337.
- 48.
Wurridjal v Commonwealth (2009) 237 CLR 309. (‘Wurridjal Case’.).
- 49.
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337.
- 50.
- 51.
Final Report 4.
- 52.
Joint Select Committee on Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (JCATSI, ‘the Committee’) of July 2014.
- 53.
The Panel Report 131, 133.
- 54.
See Parliamentary Submissions 18 and 18.1 (particularly) by this author at: http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Constitutional_Recognition_of_Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Peoples/Constitutional_Recognition/Submissions.
- 55.
Final Report 42–45.
- 56.
A view confirmed by Panel member Professor Davis: M Davis, ‘Where to next for constitutional recognition, ABC Radio National, Big Ideas Programme 14 January 2013. http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bigideas/2013-01-14/4420912.
- 57.
Patricia Karvelas, ‘Panels’ racist card stifles debate: Mundine’, The Australian, 23 January 2012.
- 58.
Scholars such as Professor George Williams oppose the complete rescission of the race (without the introduction of a new power) albeit for a different reason: The panel Report, 138.
- 59.
Final Report 88.
- 60.
Anna Henderson, ‘Constitutional recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people referendum has majority support, Recognise poll finds’, 18 May 2015, ABC News; at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-05-18/majority-support-indigenous-recognition-in-constitution-poll/6476538.
References
Blackshield, T.; Williams, G., 2010: Australian Constitutional Law and Theory Commentary and Materials (Sydney, Federation Press 5th ed 2010).
Castan, R., 1999: ‘Land, Memory and Reconciliation’, 11 Without Prejudice 4.
Chalmers, G., 2014: “The Constitutional Re-cognition (S)cam–pain: The Campaign for the Hidden Recognition of first Nations Peoples’ Racial Inferiority”, in Indigenous Law Bulletin Nov/December Vol 8 Issue 15: 27–28.
Charlesworth, H.; Durbach, A., 2011: ‘Equality for Indigenous Peoples in The Australian Constitution’ 15(2) AILR 64: 64.
Chesterman, J.; Galligan, B., 1997: Citizens Without Rights (Cambridge: CUP).
French, R., 2010: “The Race Power: A Constitutional Chimera”, in: Lee, H.P. and Winterton, G. (Eds): Australian Constitutional Landmarks (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) 180–185.
Mansell, M., 1992: “The Court Gives an Inch But Takes Another Mile”, in: Aboriginal Law Bulletin Vol. 2, No. 57, August.
Sawer, G., 1910: ‘The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia’ (Maxwell).
Other Literature
Cases
Kartinyeri v Commonwealth (1998) 195 CLR 337.
Koowarta v Bjelke-Petersen (1982) 153 CLR 168.
Kruger v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 1, 70.
Leeth v Commonwealth (1992) 174 CLR 455.
Mabo v State of Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1.
Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd (1971) 17 FLR 141.
Mount Isa Mines Ltd v Pusey (1970) 125 CLR 383, 395.
Wurridjal v Commonwealth (2009) 237 CLR 309.
Legislation
Native Title Act 1993 (Cth).
The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Recognition Act 2013 (Cth).
Parliamentary Reports
Gardiner-Garden, J.; The 1967 Referendum: History and Myths, Research Brief (Australia. Parliamentary Library); 2006–7, no. 11).
Joint Select Committee on Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (JSCATSI, ‘the Committee’) of July 2014 (‘Interim Report’).
Joint Select Committee on Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples (JSCATSI, ‘the Committee’) of June 2015 (‘Final Report’).
Magarey, K.; Gardiner-Garner, J. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Recognition Bill 2012, Bills Digest No 74 2012–2013, 11 February 2013, 10.
Official Report of the Debates of the Australian Federal Convention, Melbourne 8 February 1898, 664.
The Report of the Expert Panel, ‘Recognising Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People in the Constitution’, January 2012.
Newspapers and Radio
Gul, J.; “Constitutional Recognition of Indigenous People ‘Racist’”: [Senator] David Leyonhjelm’, in: ABC (Australia) News, 5 March 2015.
Karvelas, P.; ‘Historic Constitution Vote over Indigenous Recognition Facing Hurdles’ in: The Australian, 20 January 2012.
Karvelas, P.; “Panels’ Racist Card Stifles Debate: Mundine”, in: The Australian, 23 January 2012.
Tucker, B.; “Toxic, Childish, Poor and Pathetic”, in: The Examiner, 20 March 2013.
Internet Sources
Anderson, S., ‘Tony Abbott Has Floated a Date for a Referendum to Recognise Indigenous People in the Constitution, But Failed to Commit to a Timeline.’ SBS News 11 December 2014; at: <imgsrc=“http://www.sbs.com.au/news/sites/sbs.com.au.news/files/styles/thumb_small/public/stepohanie_anderson_0.jpg?itok=GSsEqkqF&mtime=1424987345” itemprop=“image”/> (29 May 2015).
Davis, M., ‘Where to Next for Constitutional Recognition, ABC Radio National, Big Ideas Programme 14 January 2013; at: http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bigideas/2013-01-14/4420912 (13 April 2013).
Gillard, J., Brown, B. and others, [Agreement to Form Government], the Australian Greens and the Australian Labor Party (‘the Parties’)—agreement signed on 1 September 2010, 2.
Henderson, A., ‘Constitutional Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People Referendum Has Majority Support, Recognise Poll Finds’, 18 May 2015 ABC News; at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-05-18/majority-support-indigenous-recognition-in-constitution-poll/6476538 (24 May 2015).
Henderson, A., ‘Indigenous Recognition in the Constitution Overwhelmingly Supported in New National Poll’ Australian Broadcasting Commission News, 27 Mar 2015; at: http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-03-27/poll-surveys-australians-on-indigenous-disadvantage/6350098 (28 May 2015).
Karvelas, P., ‘Historic Constitution Vote over Indigenous Recognition Facing Hurdles’ The Australian, 20 January 2012; at: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/policy/historic-constitution-vote-over-indigenous-recognition-facing-hurdles/story-fn9hm1pm-1226248879375.
The Australian ‘UN Human Rights Envoy James Anaya: NT intervention is racist’, 28 August, 2009; at: http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/un-human-rights-envoy-james-anaya-nt-intervention-is-racist/story-e6frg6n6-1225767082240.
Sawer, G., “The Australian Constitution and the Australian Aborigine”, in: Federal Law Review: 17, 19; at: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1967/2.pdf (7 February 2016).
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Wood, A. (2017). Confluence of the Rivers: Constitutional Recognition of Australia’s First Peoples. In: Devere, H., Te Maihāroa, K., Synott, J. (eds) Peacebuilding and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The Anthropocene: Politik—Economics—Society—Science, vol 9. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45011-7_8
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