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Language Contact: Sociolinguistic Context and Linguistic Outcomes

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Multilingual Hong Kong: Languages, Literacies and Identities

Part of the book series: Multilingual Education ((MULT,volume 19))

Abstract

In this chapter, we will first outline the sociolinguistic context of language contact between Hong Kong Cantonese, Standard Written Chinese (SWC) and English. Then we will exemplify the typical language contact phenomena in terms of salient patterns of linguistic outcomes, namely:

  • Lexical borrowing or transference from SWC and English into Hong Kong Cantonese;

  • Translanguaging in speech: more commonly at the intra-sentential level (traditionally termed ‘code-mixing’) than the inter-sentential level (code-switching); and

  • Translanguaging in writing: written Chinese may range from formal Hong Kong Written Chinese (HKWC), where SWC has been infused with classical Chinese (wenyan) and Cantonese elements, to informal colloquial written Cantonese, which is modeled on the norms of speech, including the free insertion of English words.

The various linguistic outcomes of language contact exemplified in this chapter, first in speech then in writing, seek to demonstrate that all the languages and language varieties within a plurilingual’s linguistic repertoire are treated as a composite pool of semiotic resources to make meaning. Our focus is on the transference of English open-class words into Cantonese, including the use of terms of address mixed with the salutary expressions ‘Sir’ and ‘Madam’ among members of the Hong Kong disciplinary forces, and ‘Sir’ and ‘Miss’ when referring to teachers in the education domain. By virtue of languages being closely bound up with specific sociocultural attributes, language choice invariably has the semiotic potential to symbolize or index speaker/writer identity. This is the basis for social motivation of translanguaging. In the absence of evidence of language choice being consciously motivated by a wish to signal and/or negotiate speaker/writer identity, translanguaging to English typically results from one or more of the following linguistic motivations: (a) to fill a lexical gap, (b) to avoid semantic incongruence, and (c) to use field-specific terms acquired through English-medium instruction, hence the medium-of-learning effect (MOLE).

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The present writer is one of those whose parents were among many who sought refuge in a makeshift hillside settlement on Hong Kong Island. Growing up in a Hakka-speaking family but interacting with neighbors and school buddies only in Cantonese, I regret missing the opportunity to learn and speak Hakka. Over time, language shift gradually leveled off linguistic diversity in an essentially Cantonese-speaking neighborhood; like me, other children my age from families speaking other Chinese varieties in the same ‘dialect enclave’ also grew up to become Cantonese-dominant, with or without developing plurilinguality to include their parents’ language(s).

  2. 2.

    輸在起跑線上 (shū zài qǐpǎoxiàn shàng/syu 55 zoi 22 hei 35 paau 35 sin 33 soeng 22).

  3. 3.

    Ngo 35 hei 55 mong 22 ne 55 gam 55 jat 22 hai 35 ni 55 go 33 coeng 21 tou 21 din 22 waa 35 fong 35 man 22 leoi 23 min 22 ne 55 zan 55 hai 22 ho 35 ji 23 min 22 deoi 33 min 22 , zeoi 35 deoi 33 zeoi 33 , m 21 hai 22, phone deoi 33 phone man 22 keoi 23 Chanel O’Connor jat 55 tiu 22 man 22 tai 21.

  4. 4.

    Nei 55 sau 35 zok 33 ban 35 go 55 kuk 55 ming 21 zi 22 giu 33 zou 22 ‘No man’s woman’ .

  5. 5.

    Nei 55 go 33 weekend nei 23 gwo 33 sing 21 dim 35 ne 55?

  6. 6.

    Ngo 35 teng 55 zi 55 cin 21 zit 33 muk 22 di 55 ting 33 zung 33 gong 35 dou 55 fei 55 soeng 21 zi 55 m 21 co 33 wo 33 , jau 35 jan 21 waa 22 heoi 33 naam 21 waan 55 , jau 35 jan 21 waa 22 heoi 33 daai 22 jyu 21 saan 55 , gam 33 gwai 35 gin 22 hong 55!

  7. 7.

    Ngo 35 zau 22 heoi 33 zo 35 gin 33 Sasha…

  8. 8.

    This data collection method, which may be termed ‘snap listening’, clearly has its limitations. While it has the merit of not infringing the interactants’ privacy, it captures mainly content information, relying on the collective short-term memory and overall impression of the field workers who are co-present in the situation. Where negotiation of identity is in evidence, however, the absence of prosodic data retrievable from a recording device – including raised volume and the amount of time elapsed in a pause – would make it difficult to pin down on the exact speaker meaning(s) intended. In all of the local examples presented in this chapter, negotiation of identity is a non-issue (see Myers-Scotton 1993b for instructive examples how negotiation of identity is closely bound up with language choice in multilingual contexts; cf. the intricate relationship between language choice and ethnolinguistic identity in a sociopolitically perilous multilingual context like Rwanda during the 1990s, Blommaert 2010, Ch. 6).

  9. 9.

    M: Nei 55 go 33 lau 21 pun 35 m 21 co 33 wo 33! [pointing at the brochure].

  10. 10.

    F: Hai 22 me 55 ? Jau 23 mou 23 wui 22 so 35 gaa 33?

  11. 11.

    M: Jau 23 aa 33! Go 33 club house zung 22 hou 35 daai 22 tim 55 aa 33 , jau 22 jau 23 wing 22 ci 21.

  12. 12.

    F: Go 33 club house jau 23 me 55 waan 35 aa 33 , jau 23 mou 23 gin 22 san 55 sat 55 gaa 33?

  13. 13.

    M: Jau 23 aa 33! Gym room jat 55 ding 22 jau 23 laa 55 , ji 21 ce 35 zung 22 jau 23 hou 35 do 55 gin 22 san 55 hei 33 coi 21 tim 55 aa 33!

  14. 14.

    F: O 22 , gam 35 dou 55 OK wo 33 …ngo 23 dei 22 ho 35 ji 23 jat 55 cai 21 zou 22 gym jyu 21 gwo 35 ngo 23 dei 22 zyu 22 nei 55 dou 22! [pointing at the brochure]. Gan 22 hoi 35 wo 33 , go 33 view jat 55 ding 22 ging 22 zeng 33.

  15. 15.

    F1: Kam 21 jat 22 in sing 21 dim 35 aa 33?

  16. 16.

    F2: Ngo 23 jat 55 heoi 33 dou 33 zau 22 giu 33 ngo 23 cim 55 joek 33 lok 33 , gan 55 bun 35 zau 22 m 21 syun 33 hai 22 second in!

  17. 17.

    F1: Gam 35 mai 22 hou 35 lo 55 , gam 33 ji 22 zau 22 ceng 35 , nei 23 zau 22 hou 35 laa 55 , gam 33 faai 33 wan 35 dou 35 je 23 zou 22.

  18. 18.

    F2: Ngo 23 gan 55 bun 35 zau 22 m 21 soeng 35 zou 22 , nei 23 tai 35 haa 23 ngo 23 nei 55 fan 22 ping 33 syu 55 , sing 21 zoeng 55 hok 22 haau 22 tung 55 gou 33 gam 23 , gan 55 bun 35 zau 22 m 21 pro . M 21 gong 35 zyu 22 laa 33 , zou 22 jyun 21 nei 55 fan 22 report sin 55 gong 35 laa 55!

  19. 19.

    F1: Nei 23 jau 23 mou 23 nam 35 gwo 33 duk 22 minor aa 33?

  20. 20.

    F2: Ngo 23 soeng 35 duk 22 Psychology zou 22 minor aa 33 …nei 23 ne 55?

  21. 21.

    F1: Mou 23 aa 33 …ngo 23 m 21 soeng 35 duk 22 do 55 sing 21 sap 22 ng 23 go 33 credits aa 33.

  22. 22.

    F2: Ngo 23 dou 55 hai 22 ……daan 22 hai 22 hou 35 ci 23 hou 35 jau 23 jung 22 gam 33……

  23. 23.

    F1: Dou 55 hai 22 …gam 35 nei 23 nam 35 zyu 22 duk 22 me 55 fo 55 aa 33?

  24. 24.

    F2: Mou 23 aa 33 … Basic principles of Psychology … Abnormal Psychology … Movie and Psychology …bat 55 gwo 33 ngo 23 dou 55 mei 22 nam 35 ding 22 aa 33.

  25. 25.

    F1: Kei 21 sat 22 ngo 23 dou 55 jau 23 nam 35 gwo 33 minor Global B gaa 33!

  26. 26.

    F2: Global B ? me 55 lai 21 gaa 33?

  27. 27.

    F1: Global Business lo 55.

  28. 28.

    F2: Dou 55 hou 35 aa 55 ! Hou 35 ci 23 hou 35 jau 23 jung 22 gam 35!

  29. 29.

    F1: M 21 zi 55 aa 33 …dou 55 hai 22 tai 35 ding 22 haa 23 sin 55…

  30. 30.

    F1: Nei 23 kam 21 jat 22 go 33 Test zou 22 sing 21 dim 35 aa 33? Lou 23 si 55 jau 23 mou 23 man 22 Tenses aa 33?

  31. 31.

    M1: Lou 23 si 55 ceot 55 zo 35 present tense tung 21 maai 21 past tense zi 55 maa 33.

  32. 32.

    F1: Gam 35 preposition ne 55?

  33. 33.

    M1: Hou 35 ci 23 mou 23 ceot 55 wo 33.

  34. 34.

    Dāng yīgerén dìyīcì jiēchù yīge xīn cíhuì shì yòng yīngwén shí, zé zhège cí liú zài tā nǎohǎi zhōng de yìnxiàng jiùshì yīngwén, yǐhòu shĭyòng yīngwén lái biǎodá zhège cí de jīhuì bǐjiào dà xiē. Lìrú: wŏ dìyīcì jiēchù dào Zhōngguó wénhuà zhōngxīn de kèchéng shí, jiùshì CCIV , zé zài yǐhòu de biǎodá zhōng wŏ yìzhí shĭyòng CCIV lái biǎodá, běncì shíyàn shì wŏ dìyīcì yòng zhōngwén lái biǎodá, fēicháng bùxíguàn, bùzìrán (HEF9). Notice that this diary excerpt may also be read (aloud) in Cantonese.

  35. 35.

    “具有香港地區特色的漢語書面語” (Shi et al. 2014, p. 6).

  36. 36.

    「以標準中文為主體,帶有部份文言色彩,並且深受粵語和英語的影響,在辭彙系統 詞義理解 結構組合 句式特點以及語言運用等方面跟標準中文有所不同,主要在香港地區普遍使用的漢語書面語。」(Shi et al. 2014, p. 6)

  37. 37.

    我手寫我口 (ngo 23 sau 35 se 35 ngo 23 hau 35, literally ‘my hand writes my mouth’). The SWC nominalization marker的 (dik 55) is also used, but infrequently (see, e.g., middle of Text 3).

  38. 38.

    Compare ‘texwood jeans’ and 蘋果牌牛仔褲 (ping 21 gwo 35 paai 21 ngau 21 zai 35 fu 33) in (22).

  39. 39.

    Hoi 55 sam 55 fan 55 hoeng 35 (‘happy [to] share’).

  40. 40.

    Lim 22 syu 55 zyun 55 jip 22 (‘Facebook page’).

  41. 41.

    Song 33 daa 35 ging 22 din 22 zi 35 jau 21 hei 33 (‘play super [computer] games like mad’). This rendition, while conceivable, does not sound like an idiomatic collocation due to a clash of registers: whereas ging 22 (勁) is highly colloquial, Mandarin-based din 22 zi 35 jau 21 hei 33 (電子遊戲) sounds very formal.

  42. 42.

    Tai 35 maai 21 pang 21 jau 23 ge 33 daa 35 gei 55 sat 22 fong 33 (‘watch friends play computer games live’).

  43. 43.

    Zou 22 jiu 21 hung 33 hin 35 si 22 hei 33 (‘become a remote control [TV] monitor’).

  44. 44.

    Maai 23 maai 21 PS4™ ge 33 din 22 zi 35 jau 21 hei 33 tung 21 haa 22 zoi 33 lok 22 heoi 33 PS4™ dou 22 tim 55 (‘also buy PS4™ games as well and download [them] onto PS4™’).

  45. 45.

    ngo 23 ji 55 gwai 22 jap 22 min 22 ge 33 bit 55 jau 23 mat 22 ban 35 (‘must-have items inside my wardrobe’).

  46. 46.

    go 33 jan 21 fung 55 gaak 33 (‘personal style’).

  47. 47.

    Gam 33 do 55 go 33 paai 21 zi 35 jap 22 min 22 , ngo 23 zau 22 zeoi 33 zung 55 ji 33 ping 21 gwo 35 paai 21 (‘among all the brands, I like texwood the most’).

  48. 48.

    Sing 21 go 33 coeng 21 teoi 35 go 21 go 55 gam 35 (‘look virtually like Long Leg Oppa!’).

  49. 49.

    Mui 23 jat 22 dou 55 gam 35 gok 33 loeng 21 hou 35 (‘feel so good every day’).

  50. 50.

    Bou 35 ci 21 zyu 22 hing 55 jing 21 jau 22 gin 22 hong 55 (‘keep poised / light-weight and healthy’).

  51. 51.

    Gei 35 si 21 dou 55 bou 35 ci 21 zyu 22 gin 22 hong 55 laa 55 (‘keeps [me] healthy anytime!’).

  52. 52.

    Joeng 22 san 55 tai 35 gin 22 hong 55 hei 35 loi 21 (‘let the body get fit!’).

  53. 53.

    Such a perception was indeed widespread in colonial Hong Kong, when ‘good’ English was widely felt to be indexical of elitism or snobbery. With more and more young people gaining access to English following the implementation of the 9-year free and compulsory education policy in 1978 (extended to 12-year in 2012), the association of English with elitism gradually became less marked in the postcolonial era.

  54. 54.

    Playful, innovative variants include hybrid forms like e-maau (i.e., ‘e-cat’), which is inspired by 貓, maau 55, ‘cat’.

  55. 55.

    Zeoi 33 hoi 55 sam 55 hai 35 gaai 55 soeng 22 gin 33 dou 35 cin 21 sin 33 ging 35 mou 33 jan 21 jyun 21 cing 55 fu 55 ngo 23 wai 21 ‘ Madam ’, jan 55 wai 22 ngo 23 wui 23 gam 35 gok 22 dou 35 zi 22 gei 35 hai 22 nei 55 jat 55 zi 55 jan 23 ji 23 wai 21 ngou 22 ge 33 ging 35 deoi 35 ge 33 jat 55 fan 22 zi 35 . Do 55 ze 22 nei 23 ! Gok 33 wai 35 aa 33 Sir, Madam!

  56. 56.

    That seminal study by Grosjean (1989) carries a rather provocative title: ‘Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person’. Grosjean hoped to dispel a popular myth, which was also shared by many language scientists of the time, namely the language use patterns of a bilingual person could be accounted for and benchmarked with those of the corresponding monolinguals.

  57. 57.

    中英夾雜 (zung 55 jing 55 gaap 33 zaap 22/zhōngyīng jiázá, ‘Chinese-English admixture’).

  58. 58.

    For an overview of the logistical requirements for transcribing bilingual speech data, see Turell and Moyer (2008).

  59. 59.

    For more details, see Canagarajah (2013a): Chapter 3, ‘Recovering Translingual Practices’, and Chapter 6, ‘Pluralizing Academic Writing’.

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  1. Department of Chinese and Bilingual Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong

    David C. S. Li

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Li, D.C.S. (2017). Language Contact: Sociolinguistic Context and Linguistic Outcomes. In: Multilingual Hong Kong: Languages, Literacies and Identities. Multilingual Education, vol 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44195-5_2

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