Abstract
The author of Chap. 8 addresses direct action from a new, contemporary, and most relevant perspective—he suggests cyber operations might be a conceptually new way to conduct direct action in future conflicts. Further, a new argument is made: the conceptual similarities between direct action and cyber operations make a theoretical foundation to which the concept of relative superiority can be adapted, therefore providing an equally important understanding of cyber operations through “methodological superiority.”
The study shows that special operations theories cannot explain cases of cyber operations. However, the theory has individual elements that might contribute to a theoretical framing of cyber operations. These elements might also be able to support the explanation of offensive cyber operations and make up an element in a cyber theory. This way, cyber operations can find support in the operational focus that can be found in a developed special operations theory.
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- 1.
Clausewitz, Carl von (1991) Om kriget. Stockholm: Bonnier fakta, p. 343.
- 2.
Ibid, pp. 342ff.
- 3.
William H. McRaven, (1995), Spec Ops—Case Studies in Special Operations Warfare: Theory and Practice. Novato: Presidio, p. 4.
- 4.
Roland Heickerö, (2013) The Dark Sides of the Internet. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, p. 9.
- 5.
Clausewitz, Carl von (1991) Om kriget. Stockholm: Bonnier fakta, p. 79.
- 6.
McRaven, 1995, p. 6.
- 7.
Spulak Robert, A Theory of Special Operations, 2007, pp. 10–14.
- 8.
Spulak, 2007, p. 13.
- 9.
Gray, C (1996) Explorations in strategy. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 168f.
- 10.
Ibid, pp. 169ff.
- 11.
McRaven, 1995, p. 4.
- 12.
Ibid, pp. 4f, 7.
- 13.
Swedish Armed Forces, Military strategic doctrine 2011 (MSD 12), 2011, p. 48.
- 14.
All of the principles described by McRaven in his special operations model above are also mentioned as principles of warfare in the Military Strategic Doctrine (MSD 12) of the Swedish Armed Forces. MSD 12 describes 14 different principles. Swedish Armed Forces, 2011, p. 48.
- 15.
McRaven, 1995, p. 19.
- 16.
Ibid, p. 19.
- 17.
McRaven, 1995, pp. 11ff.
- 18.
McRaven, 1995, p. 8.
- 19.
Butler, Robin (2004) Lord Butler’s report: espionage and the Iraq war. London: Tim Coates, p. 50f.
- 20.
Butler, 2013, pp. 51, 88, 91.
- 21.
McRaven, 1995, p. 4.
- 22.
Ibid, pp. 14f.
- 23.
U.S. Presidential Policy Directive PPD-20 from 2012 defines the frames of offensive cyber effects operations (OCEO) in the following way: OCEO can offer unique and unconventional capabilities to advance US national objectives around the world with little or no warning to the adversary or target and with potential effects ranging from subtle to severely damaging. The development and sustainment of OCEO capabilities, however, may require considerable time and effort if access and tools for a specific target do not already exist. (TS/NF) The United States Government shall identify potential targets of national importance where OCEO can offer a favorable balance of effectiveness and risk as compared with other instruments of national power, establish and maintain OCEO capabilities integrated as appropriate with other US offensive capabilities in a manner consistent with the provisions of this directive. (TS/NF) Obama, 2012, p. 9.
- 24.
McRaven, 1995, pp. 4f.
- 25.
Franz, 2011, pp. 88f.
- 26.
Spulak, 2007, p. 16.
- 27.
Franz, 2011, pp. 93f.
- 28.
Presidential Policy Directive/PPD-20, retrieved from https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/ppd/ppd-20.pdf, p. 4.
- 29.
Ibid, p. 3.
- 30.
Butler, 2013, p. 51.
- 31.
Martinage Robert, Special Operations Forces—Future Challenges and Opportunities, 2008, p. 55f.
- 32.
Heickerö R, (2010) Emerging Cyber threats and Russian Views on Information Warfare and Information Operations, (FOI-R-2970-SE), Stockholm: Swedish Defence Research Agency, p. 17.
- 33.
Obama, 2012, p. 3.
- 34.
Butler, 2013, p. 88.
- 35.
Heickerö, 2012, p. 17.
- 36.
Stiennon, 2010, pp. 115, 128.
- 37.
Martinage, 2008, pp. 55f.
- 38.
McRaven, 1995, pp. 15f.
- 39.
McRaven, 1995, p. 17.
- 40.
Heickerö, 2012, p. 54.
- 41.
von Clausewitz, Carl, pp. 29, 42.
- 42.
Butler, 2013, p. 91.
- 43.
McRaven, 1995, p. 19.
- 44.
McRaven, 1995, pp. 19ff.
- 45.
Ibid, p. 19.
- 46.
Butler, 2013, pp. 50f.
- 47.
Försvarsmakten [The Swedish Armed Forces], 2011, p. 48.
- 48.
Ibid.
- 49.
von Clausewitz, 1991, p. 29.
- 50.
Butler, 2013, p. 50f.
- 51.
von Clausewitz, 1991, p. 29.
- 52.
McRaven, 1995, p. 6.
References
Timothy Franz, The Cyber Warfare Professional: Realizations for Developing the Next Generation (AIR AND SPACE POWER JOURNAL MAXWELL AFB AL, 2011).
Robert Martinage, Strategy for the Long Haul. Special Operations Forces: Future Challenges and Opportunities (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, 2008).
Robert G. Spulak Jr, “A Theory of Special Operations: The Origin, Qualities, and use of SOF,” No. JSOU-R-07-7 (Sandia National Labs Albuquerque NM, 2007).
Richard Stiennon, Surviving Cyberwar (Lanham, MD: Government Institutes, 2010).
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AAA (2017). Does Methodological Superiority Lead the Way for SOF into Cyber Operations?. In: Eriksson, G., Pettersson, U. (eds) Special Operations from a Small State Perspective. New Security Challenges. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43961-7_8
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