Abstract
This paper proposes a cognitive-pragmatic pattern to explain asymmetric code-switching.
The various patterns on code-switching (CS) discussed in syntactic, pragmatic or syntactic-pragmatic approaches focus on balanced bilingualism and classic code-switching; they are, therefore, insufficient to explain how the different proficiency between two or more languages reflects differential reliance on lexical and conceptual activation during the code-switching production processes. Starting from these critical issues, the paper focuses on functional, psycholinguistic, socio-cultural, and sociolinguistic aspects of asymmetric bilingualism, and proposes a model – called the Asymmetric Multi-Language Model (henceforth AMLM) – integrating these aspects within a cognitive-pragmatic perspective. The AMLM borrows and integrates principles deriving from: (1) the Dual Language Model (DLM) by Kecskes (Word 49(3):321–340, 1998) and Kecskes and Papp (Foreign language and mother tongue. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, 2000); (2) the Matrix Language Frame (MLF) by Myers-Scotton (Duelling languages: grammatical structure in code-switching. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993 [1997]); (3) the lexical access theory by De Bot (Appl Linguist 13(1):1–24, 1992) and others (see References); and, finally, (4) the language mode theory by Grosjean (Studying bilinguals: methodological and conceptual issues. In: Bilingualism: language and cognition, 1, Cambridge University Press, pp 131–149, 1998; The bilingual’s language modes. In: Nichol J (ed) One mind, two languages: bilingual language processing. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 1–22, 2001).
The AMLM introduces a number of advantages and innovations: (1) within a single model it provides a theoretical framework not only allowing a description of asymmetric bilingualism but also the more complex linguistic system of multilinguals; (2) with regard to asymmetric multilingualism, it replaces the notion of language mode continuum by Grosjean (Studying bilinguals: methodological and conceptual issues. In: Bilingualism: language and cognition, 1, Cambridge University Press, pp 131–149, 1998) with the notion of language mode gradatum; (3) it explains code-switching produced by unbalanced bi- and multilingual speakers from both a syntactic and functional point of view; (4) it interprets code-switching as a collaborative and dynamic process between codes, rather than as cross-linguistic interference due to the unbalanced proficiencies of the speakers.
Focusing on asymmetric multilingualism in the communities of Italians abroad, the paper employs the AMLM model to analyze the asymmetric intra-sentential code-switching in a digital speech corpus belonging to second-generation subjects. The analysis of the different types of code-switching is based on the three-way classification of code-switching by Muysken (Bilingual speech: a typology of code-switching. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000). The interpretation of their pragmatic use takes into account the main CS functional models and the principle that speech acts should be situated in context discussed by Mey (Pragmatics. Blackwell, Oxford, 2001) and Capone (Linguistics 41(6):1170–1173, 2003).
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Notes
- 1.
According to the Equivalence Constraint, codes will tend to be switched at points where the surface structures of the languages map onto each other; according to the Free Morpheme Constraint, a switch may occur at any point in the discourse at which it is possible to make a surface constituent cut and still retain a free morpheme (Sankoff and Poplack 1981).
- 2.
The results of the research conducted using neuroimaging techniques would seem to confirm the hypothesis that multilingual speakers are not simply two or more mono-languages in the same individual (Abutalebi et al. 2001).
- 3.
Furthermore, early and bridge morphemes can take on new meanings or functions through language contact, like content morphemes that, in addition, can also change their meaning when they become parts of calques, or split and combine their lexical-conceptual structure with the lexical-conceptual structure of another content morpheme in a different language.
- 4.
Kesckes (2006) employs the DLM to demonstrate that the primary cause for code-switching is conceptual-pragmatic rather than syntactic. Kecskes (2006: 263–64) argues: “The main difference between the MLF model and the DLM is that while the MLF attempts to analyze the syntax of code-switched sentences by reaching back to the conceptual level, the DLM model puts the conceptual system into the center of analysis as the originator of bilingual thought that may be expressed in a codeswitched form”.
- 5.
The DLM assumes that the CUCB contains common concepts, culture-specific concepts, and synergic concepts. Culture-specific concepts are numerous and language-specific; also common concepts are numerous and relate to both cultures with differences that occur only at the lexical level; synergic concepts consist of bilingual concepts that are lexicalized in both languages but having a different socio-cultural load in each language.
- 6.
- 7.
Also in Italy, the Italiano popolare has long represented the diglossic variety widely used by semi-educated individuals in more formal contexts.
- 8.
A reference model for analyzing the type of integration attained by an immigrant abroad is Hannerz’s (2001) classification that distinguishes between (1) encapsulated (when the individual’s social life is confined to one sphere, which usually coincides with the work context); (2) segregated (when the spheres in which the individual lives are clearly separate and non-communicating between them); (3) isolated (a condition, normally transitory, typical of the early migration period when the individual has no work and is often deprived of a network of friends and neighbors); (4) integrated (the case in which the individual possesses a range of broad and mobile roles, with spheres of life that intercommunicate). In integrated contexts bilingual behavior is more likely, with frequent borrowing and code-switching.
- 9.
See also the References for details on the numerous studies on Italian abroad.
- 10.
Regarding the EMC various classifications, based on different criteria, have been proposed. (See the report by Cherny 1999).
- 11.
A typological classification of EMC, based on the time coordinates for message transmission and reception, distinguishes between asynchronous and synchronous communication (Herring 2001). Asynchronous forms (e.g. e-mail, mailing list, newsgroup) can be executed at a different time and do not necessarily require a simultaneous connection of interlocutors; synchronous forms, on the other hand, occur in real time and interlocutors are online at the same time. The latter would therefore seem to reflect more closely the characteristics of an in praesentia conversation. However, if one considers that the receiver manages the rhythm of exchange (deciding to respond to an email immediately or to respond to an MSN message at a later time), the distinction between asynchronous and synchronous communication can be maintained only if the temporal characteristics of the communication exchange are not defined by the type of tool but by the type of feedback established each time by the receiver (Pistolesi 2004: 17). Any form of electronic interaction can therefore possess synchronous communication characteristics.
- 12.
Modica is the speaker’s town of origin.
- 13.
In all the items stated in the paper, the words in italics are in Sicilian dialect. The parts written in Italian and Sicilian contain many language and spelling errors. These errors are not analyzed in this paper, but nevertheless, it has been decided to integrally report these texts without correction.
- 14.
Scaccia is Sicilian bread focaccia, with a variety of fillings, typical of the sender’s area of origin.
- 15.
The cassata ri ricotta is an Easter cake made with ricotta cheese.
- 16.
The pronoun he refers to the speaker’s father.
- 17.
In Sicily, traditionally the first name given to children followed a rigid hereditary principle from grandparent to grandchild; as a result, even in families with numerous offspring, the number of different first names would be limited to no more than five or six.
- 18.
In additive bilingualism (Lambert 1974), the two languages enjoy equipollent socio-linguistic value and the learners add L2 to their repertoire without losing familiarity or fluency with their mother tongue.
- 19.
Alternatively, the sense of belonging can occur with only one of the two cultures, despite the perfectly balanced coexistence of linguistic competency in the two languages: in this case, Hamers and Blanc (1989, 2000) refer to bilingualism with monoculturality.
- 20.
- 21.
According to Muysken (2000), insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization are mixing phenomena. The scholar makes a terminological distinction between code-switching, which is “reserved for the rapid succession of several languages in a single speech event”; and code-mixing, which is used “to refer to all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence” (Idem: 1): the first (generally) has a pragmatic-functional value and its analysis framework is pragmatic, while code-mixing’s analysis framework is related to the syntax theory. Based on the consideration that the difference between code mixing and code switching is, indeed, very subtle from a functional point of view, and that the two definitions tend rather to overlap, the AMLM considers code-mixing structures as intrasentential code-switching.
- 22.
See note 14. Scacce is the morphological form adapted from the Sicilian scacci (plural of the feminine noun scaccia) and, being a Sicilian cultural-specific concept, in Italy it is considered an Italian regionalism.
- 23.
In the case of IT3-S-Inser it cannot be excluded that the insertion is facilitated by its phonological similarity to Italian.
- 24.
See note 15.
- 25.
The word zonnu is only present in Modica dialect.
- 26.
At a discourse level, alternation corresponds with what many scholars describe as intersentential code-switching.
- 27.
The switching use in Italian and dialect cover the same range of functions observed in Italian communities abroad (Cf. Bianconi and Moretti 1994: 30–35; Moretti 1999: 69–70; Moretti and Antonini 2000: 110; Collovà and Petrini 1981–1982: 271–280). Similar inventories emerge from other studies on Italian/dialect code-switching conducted in Italy. Numerous sociolinguistic research studies on the topic highlight that in some sociolinguistic contexts and among certain speaker categories (the young in particular) dialect is almost exclusively used to demark a change in the tone of discourse to humorous or playful or for interjection, expressions or discourse markers or to add a particularly expressive nature to the message (Cf. Alfonzetti 2001; Cerruti 2004; Assenza 2011).
- 28.
Specciu ro ma cuori, literally ‘mirror of my heart’ is a Sicilian idiom.
- 29.
With reference to the immigrant community, in the first case, typically in I generation individuals with incipient competence in the host language, code-switching mainly consists of insertions; in the second case, applicable to II generation individuals with evanescent competence in the native language, congruent lexicalization is the phenomenon that largely characterizes code-switching processes (Auer 1998; Bettoni 1991).
- 30.
Some scholars classify this type of phenomenon as structural calque.
- 31.
According to Myers-Scotton this type of CS “only occurs in those communities where speakers wish to index simultaneously, and especially for their informal, in-group interactions, the identities associated with the unmarked use of more than one code” (Myers-Scotton 1993a: 126).
- 32.
In Sicilian, on the other hand, the forms of present perfect express actions repeated and continued over time independently of the moment they are uttered.
- 33.
This parameter, moreover, is envisaged in the first version of the Matrix Language Frame Model (Cf. Myers-Scotton 1993 [1997]; Myers-Scotton and Jake 1995).
- 34.
On the other hand, even Muysken (2000) notes that the mixing practices of a community are not fixed and absolute and there are also communities that use more than one strategy.
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Assenza, E. (2016). The Asymmetric Multi-language Model: A Cognitive-Pragmatic Pattern to Explain Code-Switching by Unbalanced Multilinguals. In: Allan, K., Capone, A., Kecskes, I. (eds) Pragmemes and Theories of Language Use. Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology, vol 9. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43491-9_43
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