Abstract
This paper aims at attracting attention to some properties of Arabic that may invite mutual distrust between native speakers and those of other languages. Cultures, including Arabic-speaking Islam, often differ in their perceptions of language, i.e., its definition, roles, objectives, properties and evaluation, and like many other differences, these constitute a fertile substratum for distrust. Among the most conspicuous implications of these perceptions is the division of people into in- and out-groups, which tinges their trustworthiness. To put the role of language into context, the paper will discuss briefly the concept of Trust in Arabic-speaking Islam, and then move to examining the role of language in it. In doing so basic linguistic components of the concept of trust are treated, the most important of which are Truth, Falsity, the Hidden and the Overt. These are examined in Islamic/Arabic epistemological context, i.e., knowledge, facts, and doubt. Next, trust-related linguistic actions are discussed, i.e. speech and intention vs. actions, argumentation and persuasion, haggling, promise, agreement, deceit and credence. The conclusion of the paper is that hidden linguistic differences are a trap in the area of inter-cultural trust, the awareness of which is indispensable for the creation of trust.
For Gadi, Ofra, Ravit and Kfir.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
See Suleiman 1999, 44; For an example of popular network view, see “Islam is a Lie, Muslims are Liars and the Press Promulgates the Lies.” In: Islam Exposed: Online Petition for Documentary Exposure of Islam. Saturday, May 07, 2011. http://islamexposed.blogspot.co.il/2011/05/islam-is-lie-muslims-are-liars-and.html; Mustakāwī et al. 2004, 219. In the political arena, see, e.g. http://www.israpundit.com/archives/40122.
- 2.
- 3.
E.g. former president of Egypt, Husni Mubarak’s speech at the Arab Summit Meeting, held in Cairo in 2000; Qurei 2005, 7 on the Palestinian negotiational principles. Saib Arekat, in Sher 2001, 149. Rabin, in Dan Pattir, private communication to me, 11-12-08; and Olmert Ehud: The Importance of Personal Trust between Leaders, 3 Apr 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cmGkdSAfDU4.
- 4.
E.g. Al-Rāfi‘ī, the Egyptian poet (d. 1937), Waḥī al-Qalam. Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tijārīyah al-Kubrā. (n.d.), pp. 35–6) as quoted in ‘Abbūd and ‘Abd al-’Āl, 1990, 202.
- 5.
Ajami 1981, 28 (Quoting Zakī Naguīb Maḥmūd).
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
Nehme 2003, 144: “Arabs tend to use language the way a drunk uses a lamppost for support rather than for light.” The phenomenon in other Languages at large—see Sweetser 1989, 44, quoting Goffman 1974. For the role of language in low-context languages (American), see Grice’s conversational maxims (Grice 1975, 41) that call for being informative, brief, relevant, unambiguous.
- 9.
E.g. rhetorical structures. See Ismail 2010, 13.
- 10.
- 11.
It is believed to have started with the polymath al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 869) (Jāḥiẓ 1965, III, 130).
- 12.
Of course the idea of poetic licence is legitimate. For the switch of positions in the West too, see Lanham 2006, 262.
- 13.
See, e.g. the case of Egypt contract law: Rayner 1991, 163.
- 14.
Merkin 2012, during the talks with the Syrians.
- 15.
- 16.
For the information-relation dichotomy, see also Zaharna 2007.
- 17.
In Arabic, the longer the compliment the more sincere it is considered to be. Carla (Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition) University of Minnesota. (2013). Arabic Compliments. http://www.carla.umn.edu/speechacts/compliments/arabic.html. Arabs also use similes and metaphors in compliments more than their American English counterparts.” (Momani 2009, 51).
- 18.
- 19.
- 20.
- 21.
For example, when making a request, Arabs, especially Saudis (Tawalbeh and al-Oqaily 2012, 85), Jordanians (Momani 2009, iv; 88), and Egyptians of a higher class than that of the object of request, were more direct than Americans, see Elserafy and Arseven 2013, 569; Fattah and Ravindranath 2009, 33. Also, research showed that the division between Americans and Jordanians with respect to directness is not all that sharp (Al-Momani 2009, 128).
- 22.
- 23.
Lisān al-‘Arab, s.v. “Lughah”.
- 24.
Adonis, as quoted by Sharabi 1988, 86.
- 25.
Such as “seeing” for “understanding”, “perspectives” for “positions”, etc. (Dundes 1980, 87).
- 26.
A good example is given by Minqarī 1981, 491, where two contradictory actions were justified as “[both] taken for the sake of God.”
- 27.
A case in hand was the Oslo talks, when the Israelis (Pundak and Singer) demanded sharp and clear statements from the more general and vague Palestinians (Pundak 2012).
- 28.
See, e.g. Ikle 1964, 12. For modern negotiations, see Ben Ami 2004, 30; al-Sādāt 1978, 402; Fahmi 1983, 202; Sher 2001, 93 etc., This approach is not exclusive to Arabs, of course: Richard the Lionheart, too, e.g. adopted top-bottom procedure in his negotiations with Salah al-Din (Sa‘dāwī 1961, 55).
- 29.
- 30.
Mehdi 2014. For example, sixty percent of the Lebanese, and seventy five percent of Egyptians do not believe that the 9/11 attack was carried out by Muslims. http://wikiislam.net/wiki/Muslim Statistics—Conspiracy Theories, quoting Muslim-Western Tensions Persist—Pew Research Center, July 21, 2011; Koopmans, 2014.
- 31.
See in particular, Gray 2010, Chap. 3 for modern Middle Eastern history.
- 32.
- 33.
- 34.
- 35.
Badri 2000/1420,16, (Quoting ‘Aqqād, al-Lughah al-Shā‘irah, 70).
- 36.
Balāsī 1993, 103 (quoting al-‘Aqqād 1960). al-Lugha al-Shā‘irah Mukhaimar, 42.
- 37.
See Kallas 2015, esp. Chap. 7. Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 803. Suleiman 2004, 38; Salameh 2011, 48, (Quoting Abū Khaldūn Sāṭi‘) Al-Ḥuṣrī, (d.1967) (1985). Abḥāth Mukhtārah fi-l-Qawmīyah al-‘Arabīyah (Selected studies on Arab nationality). Beirut: Markaz Dirāsāt al-Wiḥda al- ‘Arabīyah; Nuṣairāt 1997, 218; Hafez 2014, 434; Barakat 1993, 182.
- 38.
- 39.
Some 73 percent of Arab respondents, (The 7th Annual ASDA’A Burson-Marsteller Arab Youth Survey.
- 40.
E.g. the Arab League’s declaration in its 2007 Beirut Summit Meeting.
- 41.
It is of interest, however, that Jordanian students judged, by audio-visual data, Americans to be more honest than their own compatriots (Atoum et al. 2000, 276).
- 42.
Suleiman 2004, 46. E.g. a book by the title “The March against the Language of the Qur’ān” (al-Zaḥf ‘alā Lughat al-Qur’ān) by the Saudi journalist Aḥmad ‘Abd al-Ghafūr ‘Aṭṭār (1966). Various Arab authors use military terminology to describe the language war. Thus, the internal part of this conflict is guided by outside forces (Farrūkh, ‘Umar. (1961) Al-Qaumīyah al-Fuṣḥah. Beirut: Dār al-‘Ilm lil-Malāyīn).
- 43.
- 44.
Suleiman 2004, 52, quoting Muhammad ‘Abd al-Rahman Marhaba (tashwthilt, 69).
- 45.
See, e.g., Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J., & Sultana, T. (2016). Factors Contributing to the Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World: An Exploratory Study. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 24(3).
- 46.
Khadduri 1984, 154. It is more in use by the Hanafite, than by other schools of the law.
- 47.
- 48.
Qutb 1990, 12. p. 116; Quṭb, Fī Ẓilāl al-Qur’ān, Sūrat al-Anfāl.
- 49.
- 50.
- 51.
- 52.
- 53.
For Lie as a speech act, see Sweetser 1989, 43.
- 54.
Baiḍāwī (d. 1286), in his commentary on Qur’ān, 2:9. The OED’s definition only adds the intention to deceive to this one.
- 55.
Mausū‘at al-Akhlāq, “Ṣuwar al-Kadhib.” http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/2695.
- 56.
Qur’ān, 6:21, 93; 6:144; 7:37; 10:17; 11:18; 18:15; 29:68; 61:7.
- 57.
- 58.
Ibn Abī al-Dunyā 1973, 116–117/144; Qaraḍāwī. http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=383&version=1&template_id=8&parent_id=12.
- 59.
Tirmidhī, Jāmi’, Bāb al-Birr wal-ṣilah ‘an Rasūl Allah. 4/325 No. 1927:
- 60.
Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 137,5; Zīnātī Ṭarīqah, I, 35,4; Rosen 1984, 131.
- 61.
Suyūṭī, Khṣā’iṣ, 492 (referring to Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, ‘Ilm, 38 inter al.). Suyūṭī, Kifāyah, III, 326, 3.
- 62.
Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 137, So did Abraham who presented his wife Sarah as his sister. Ibn Qutaibah 1966, 34.
- 63.
- 64.
E.g. Bukhārī vol. 3 book 49 ch. 2 no. 857. A similar permission—also in Jewish law, Shulhan Arukh, Hoshen Mishpat, article 262, sub article 21.
- 65.
Ibn Mājah 1952, vol. 4 book 24 (Jihād) ch. 27 no. 2833 p.181.
- 66.
Ibrahim 2010, 5 (quoting Sami Mukāram, At-Taqīyah fi ‘l-Islam (London: Mu’assasat at-Turāth ad-Durzī 2004, 7, author’s translation.) Taqīyah is of fundamental importance in Islam. Practically every Islamic sect agrees to it and practices it … We can go so far as to say that the practice of taqlyyah is mainstream in Islam, and that those few sects not practicing it diverge from the mainstream … Taqīyah is very prevalent in Islamic politics, especially in the modern era.”.
- 67.
Al-Suyūṭī, Itqān, 36, 3. See also Madjāz in EI 2.
- 68.
See Sztompka in this volume, p. 18.
- 69.
Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. (2002). “Sirr”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Leidn: Brill. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/sirr-SIM_8901?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=sirr
- 70.
Ibn Ḥayyān al-Bustī, Rauḍat al-‘Uqalā’, 191. Quoted in al-Mausū‘ah al-Akhlāqīyah, al-Akhlāq al-Maḥmūdah, Kitmān al-Sirr, Aqwāl al-Salaf wal-Qudamā’ fī Kitmān al-Sirr. http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/1245.
- 71.
Qur’ān, Isrā’: 34; Tirmidhī, Jāmi’, Adab, 32.
- 72.
Th’ālabī, al-Tamthīl, 420, quoted in Mausū‘at al-Akhlāq, al-Durar al Sunnīyah, Al-Mausū‘ah al-Akhlāqīyah, http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/1590. Also, Furaiḥ 2014.
- 73.
Al-Durar al-Sunnīyah, al-Mausū‘ah al-Akhlāqīyah, al-Akhlāq al-Maḥmūdah, Kitmān al-Sirr. http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/1247. al-Hasan (d. 670 A.D.) in Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 132; al-Māwardi (d. 1058 A.D.,) in Mausū’at al-Akhlāq. Al-Akhlāq al-Madhmūmah, Ifshā’ al-Sirr, citing al-Māwardi, Adab al-Duniā, 306ff.
- 74.
Alf Lailah wa-Lailah 2004, 9th night, I, 43.
- 75.
Bāzī 2010, 31 (Quoting Ṭabarī).
- 76.
A Probably fabricated hadith. Bāzī 2010, 27. (Quoting al-Suyūṭī).
- 77.
See OED, s.v. Persuasion, for a definition.
- 78.
Salhi 2001, 3.
- 79.
- 80.
For logic and rhetoric as universal, Ismail 2010, 232.
- 81.
This division is not universally recognised, however. See, e.g. al-Zarījāwī 2013, 280.
- 82.
E.g. Shukrī Muṣṭafā, the leader of the Takfīr wa-Hijrah movement. Al-Azm 2007, 291, as do 53 % of Lebanese respondents; 42 % of Tunisians, and average of 15.6 % of Moroccans, Egyptians, Iraqis, Jordanians and the Palestinians. “Pew Report on Muslim World Paints a Distressing Picture.” https://whyevolutionistrue.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/picture-11.png.
- 83.
For the four core-beliefs of authority-direct knowledge, see Karabenick and Moosa 2005, 375.
- 84.
According to 46 % of a survey respondents. Haidar and Balfakih 1999, 11.
- 85.
Hirschfeld, Ya’ir. (2012). Interview, 4-3-12, quotes Faisal Huseini about himself. See also Naffsinger 1994.
- 86.
For some comparative observations on Central American traditional conflict resolution argumentation, see Lederach 1991, 184.
- 87.
Ellis and Maoz 2002, 184, citing Spolsky and Walters (1985).
- 88.
- 89.
Hatim 1997, 164 distinguishes, in this context, between functional and nonfunctional repetitions in Arabic.
- 90.
- 91.
Khadījah, “Baina al-Aqwāl wal-Af‘āl”, Mudawwanat al-Ghad al-Afḍal, http://vip30.blogspot.co.il/2010/05/blog-post_2043.html.
- 92.
Baṣrī, al-Ḥasan al-, Ijlā’ al-Ṣadīd bi-Maw‘iẓ al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī Abī Sa‘īd (The removal of pus in al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī's exhortations). Shabakat al-‘Ulūm al-Salafīyah. http://aloloom.net/vb/showthread.php?t=27515.
- 93.
Ibn Manī‘, 1413H. 147. For the speech act of “promise” see Searle, 1969 56 ff. For the future element of the promise—see his condition number 3, p. 57.
- 94.
Qur’ān, 5:1; 9:4; 9:7. Also, Zuḥailī Āthār, 322; 752; Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 132, and many others. Keeping a promise is as telling about a person as does testimony about him. (Ibn Manī’ 1413H., 135).
- 95.
As did the Prophet Muhammad. Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 133.
- 96.
- 97.
Ibn Manī‘ 1413H., 157; Ibn Wahb, al-Jāmi‘, Hadith No. 205.
- 98.
See Qur’ān, 9:73–87. For the concept see “al-Munāfiḳūn.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Online, 2014.
- 99.
E.g. al-Turkī 1416H. 446. See Abdullah and Abd al-Rahman 2015 for the legal obligation to keep promises.
- 100.
Abū Da’ūd 1989, 4/29. On the other hand, Ishmael was known for his keeping his promises, to the extent that he waited for twenty two days for a man who forgot to show for a meeting he had agreed to have with him. (Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 132–3.)
- 101.
- 102.
For example, in Jordan, the Prophet Muhammad, the Qur’ān, “Religion”, but also relatives, or body organs. (Al-Mutlaq 2013, 226ff.).
- 103.
Here belong also ultimata and warnings, but I will not treat them in this paper.
- 104.
- 105.
Baghawī 1987, Tafsīr, Surah 8:59, vol. 2, p. 257.
- 106.
Hill 1971, 50; 74; e.g. Heraclios, in Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, Volume 1, Book 1, Number 6; Saladin—Qal‘ajī 1997, 66,19.
- 107.
For breaking agreements in Islamic law, see Wohidul Islam 1998, 336.
- 108.
Nawawī 1985/1405, X 339, 5; al-Shaibānī Syar, V, 1697.
- 109.
- 110.
Baihaqī, 1344, V, 339: Prohibition on selling an item that is not the seller’s property.
- 111.
Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, I, 111: Need for fixed measures and weighs.
- 112.
Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, II, 76, 17: Lies and concealment that nullify commercial deals.
- 113.
See above, Bar-Tal et al.’s point that Trust and distrust are learned.
References
Abd el-Jawad, H.R. (2000). A Linguistic and Sociopragmatic and Cultural Study of Swearing in Arabic. Language, Culture and Curriculum 13(2):217–240.
‘Abbūd,’. A., & ‘Abd al-’Āl, Ḥ. I. (1990). Al-Tarbīyah al-Islāmīyah wa-taḥaddiyāt al-‘aṣr. (Islamic culture and the challenges of the age.) al-Qāhirah: Dār al-Fikr al-‘Arabī .
Abdullah, F., & Abd al-Rahman, A. (2015). The Theory of ‘Promise’ (Waʿd) in Islamic Law. Arab Law Quarterly, 29(2), 168–189.
Abū Da’ūd, Sulaimān b. Isḥāq (d. 817 AD). (1989). Sunan. Al-Riyāḍ: Maktab al-Tarbīyah al-’Arabī li-Duwal al-Khalīj.
Abū Qaḥf, ’A. M. (n.d.). Binā‘ al-Maharāt al-Taswīqīyah fī Fann al-Bai‘ – al-Tafāwuḍ – Takhṭīṭ al-Ḥamlāt. (Constructing marketing expertise in the art of sales, negotiation and campaign planning). (Summary by Sahalī, Samīr Marjī Ḥamd al-,) http://www.liec-edu.com/Uploads/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A1%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9%20(%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A).doc
Abū Ṣāliḥ, M. B. (n.d.) Al-madkhal ilā al-‘Arabīyah: Abḥāth Taujīhīyah fī al-lughah al-‘Arabīyah [Introduction to Arabic: Instructional studies in Arabic]. Bairūt: Dār al-Sharq al-‘Arabī.
Abū Ṭālib, A. D. Ṣ. (1997). Āthār Ḥarb Uktūbir ‘Alā al-Shakhṣīyah al-Miṣrīyah [The influence of the October war on the Egyptian personality]. In: M. Talāwī, (Ed.), Al-Nadwah al-Istrātijīyah: Ḥarb Uktūbir ba‘da 25 āman [Strategy conference: The October war twenty five years later]. (pp. 136–144). Idārat al-Shu’ūn al-Ma‘nawīyah – wizārat al-Difā‘.
Aḥmad, M. A. & ‘Abd al-Mājid, ’I. M. (2014). Naẓarīyat al-Ma‘rifah fī al-Manẓūr al-Islāmī [The Islamic perspective of Epistemology]. Journal of Science and Technology, 15(1) 1–20.
Ajami, F. (1981). The Arab predicament: Arab political thought and practice since 1967. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ajami, H. (2013). Philosophy of Arabic Language. Philpapers, Philosophical Research Online. http://philpapers.org/rec/AJAPOA
Al-Fattah, M. H. A., & Ravindranath, B. K. (Jan. 2009). Politeness strategies in Yemeni Arabic requests. Language in India 9(6). 23–42.
Hamad, Q., Al-, M., & Al-Shunnag, M. A. (2011). Emotive expressions in president Bashar Al-Assad’s political Speeches with an Eye to Translation. Onomāzein, 1(23), 149–170.
al-Hāshimī, ’Ā. T. (Bghdād) (1983). Ṭuruq Tadrīs al-Tarbīyah al-Islāmīyah [Methods for teaching Islamic education]. Beirut: Mū’āsasat al-Risālah.
al-Jaber, K. J. M. (2012). Audiences’ perceptions of news media services in three Arab Countries (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leicester) https://lra.le.ac.uk/handle/2381/27680
al-Kandari, A. A. (2010). Arab news networks and conspiracy theories about America: a political gratification study. Journal of Arab and Muslim Media Research, 3/1–2, 59–76.
al-Khādimī, M. b. M. b. ’U., a. S. (d. 1176H.). Barīqah Maḥmūdīyah fī sharḥ Barīqah Maḥmūdīyah wa-sharī‘ah nabawīyah fī sīrah Aḥmadīyah. (Mahmudi glittering: interpreting the Muhammadan tarīqah and a prophetic Shari’ah of the Ahmady biography). (Arabic). http://feqh.al-islam.com/Loader.aspx?pageid=273&Words=%d8%aa%d9%87%d8%af%d9%8a%d8%af&Type=phrase&Level=exact&ID=23215&Return=http%3a%2f%2ffeqh.al-islam.com%2fPortals%2fal-islam_com%2fLoader.aspx%3fpageid%3d272%26Words%3d%d8%aa%d9%87%d8%af%d9%8a%d8%af%26Level%3dexact%26Type%3dphrase%26SectionID%3d3%26Page%3d0
al-Khatib, M. A. (1994). A Sociolinguistic view of the language of persuasion in Jordanian society. Language, Culture and Curriculum 7 ii, 161–174. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07908319409525174
Al-Makaty, S. S., Boyd, D. A., & Van Tubergen, G. N. (1994). Source credibility during the Gulf War: A Q-Study of rural and urban Saudi Arabian citizens. Journalism and Mass Communication quarterly, 71(1). 55–63.
Al-Momani, H. S. (2009). Caught between two cultures: the realization of requests by Jordanian EFL Learners. Dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania. https://dspace.iup.edu/handle/2069/176?show=full
Al-Mutlaq, H. (2013). A sociolinguistic study of terms of oaths in Jordanian Arabic. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 3(21) [Special Issue—December 2013], 225–228.
al-Qaddāḥ, R. (2005). Aklhlāq al-Islām [Islamic ethics]. Kotobarabia.com (Arabic). https://books.google.co.il/books?id=AbcCaRCYjwcC
al-Qazwīnī, I. A. (10th cent.). (1977). al-Ṣāhibī. [The Sahibi]. al-Qāhirah: ‘Īsā al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī. (Arabic).
al-Qaṣaīmī, ’A. b. ’A. al-Najdī. (2006). Al-‘Arab Ẓāhirah ṣautīyah [The Arabs—a sonic phenomenon]. Kūlūnīyā: Manshūrāt al-Jamal (Arabic).
al-Quraishī, ’. A. (2007/1428). Al-Muslimūn wal-ākhar: Ḥiwār lā ṣaddām [Muslims and the other: A dialogue, not a clash]. Rabt: Isesco (Arabic). http://www.isesco.org.ma/arabe/publications/almoslimoune%20wa%20al%20akhar/p1.php
al-Sādāt, A. (1978). Al-Baḥth ‘an al-dhāt: Qiṣṣat ḥayātī. [In search of identity: An autobiography]. Cairo: Al-Maktab al-Maṣrī al-ḥadīth lil-Ṭibā‘ah wal-nashr (Arabic).
al-Salhi, A. S. (2001). Epistemological beliefs among Saudi college students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado. http://Search.Proquest.Com/Docview/304714720#
al-Sayyid, M. A. (1980). Al-Mūjaz fī Ṭuruq Tadrīs al-Lughah al-‘Arabīyah. [A summary of methods of teaching of Arabic]. Beirut: Dār al-’Audah. (Arabic).
Al-Shamma, G. (1986). A sociolinguistic study of some basic characteristics of expression of the Syrian Arab personality. Anthropological Linguistics 28(1), 106–114.
al-Sheikh, R. I. M. (2001). Akhlāq al-Islām wa-Akhlāq Du‘ātihi: (Islamic ethics and the ethics of its missionaries). http://www.google.com/books?hl=iw&lr=&id=6YYYY9Cq3cYC&oi=fnd&pg=PT7&dq=%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9+%D8%B5%D8%AF%D9%82&ots=1nwpIJuT1Y&sig=-G53cJvFhweM8pYRD8UFdzJKq5E#v=onepage&q=%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9%20%D8%B5%D8%AF%D9%82&f=false
Al-Simadi, F. A. (20002). Detection of deceptive behavior: A cross-cultural test. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 28(5), 455–461.
al-Simadi, F. A. (20001). Jordanian students’ beliefs about nonverbal behaviors associated with deception in Jordan. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 28/5. 437–441. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cites=11062350303782644737&as_sdt=2005&sciodt=0,5&hl=en
al-Suyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Abū Bakr, (849–911H.) Kifāyat al-Ṭālib al-Labīb fī Khaṣā’iṣ al-Ḥabīb. (Ample [information] for the intelligent seekers of the characteristics of the Beloved (i.e., the prophet Muhammad)). http://ia601205.us.archive.org/33/items/alkhsaes-alkbra-.pdf/alkhsaes-alkbra-.pdf (the same as al-Khaṣā‘iṣ) (Arabic).
al-Taftazānī, S. (n.d.). Mukhtaṣar al-Ma‘ānī. [A compendium on meanings]. Maktabat Ya‘qūb al-Iliktrūnīyah (Arabic).
al-Tauḥīdī, A. (1964). Al-Ṣadāqah wal-ṣadīq. [On friendship and the friend]. (Ed. Kīlānī, Ibrāhīm). Damascus: Dār al-Fikr (Arabic).
al-Tirmidhī, a. ’I. M. b. ’I. Jāmi‘ al-Tirmidhī. (al-Tirmidī’s Hadith Collection.) (Arabic).
al-‘Ubaidī, Rashīd ‘Abd al-Raḥmān. (2001/1421). “Lughat al-I‘lām al-Dīnī.” (The Language of Religious Instruction). Al-Dhakhā’ir 2, 23–34.
al-Zarījāwī, ’. Ā. Z. (2013). Naẓarīyat al-Ma‘rifah ‘ind al-Muslimīn. [Islamic epistemology]. Ādāb al-Kūfah, 17(1). 279–318. http://uokufa.edu.iq/journals/index.php/kufa_arts/article/view/1805/pdf_204
al-Zuḥailī, W. (1962). Āthār al-Ḥarb fī al-Fiqh al-Islāmī [Effects of war in Islamic jurisprudence]. Damascus: Dār al-Fikr (Arabic).
Al-Azm, S. J. (2007). Islam and the Science–Religion Debates in Modern Times. European Review, 15(03), 283–295.
Alf Lailah wa-Lailah. (2004). One thousand and one nights. Cairo: Dār al-’Ilm wal-ma’rifah lil-Nashr wal-Tauzī‘.
Ali, A. J. (1993). Decision-making style, individualism, and attitudes toward risk of Arab executives. International studies of management and organization, 23(3), 53–74.
’Alī, K. Ḥ. (1987). Muḥāribūn wa-Mufāwiḍūn [Warriers and negotiators]. Cairo: Markaz al-Ahrām lil-Tarjamah wal-Nashr.
Allen, J. (September 10, 2008). No consensus on who was behind Sept 11: Global Poll. Reuters. Retrieved September 26, 2010. http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/09/10/us-sept11-qaeda-poll-idUSN1035876620080910.; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_polls_about_9/11_conspiracy_theories#/media/File:911worldopinionpoll_Sep2008.png
Alrefai, E. H. (2012). Favor asking in Kuwaiti Arabic: Effects of power and distance on core strategies and modification (Doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State University).
‘Alwān , ’A. (n.d). Tarbīyat al-Awlād fī al-Islām [Child Education in Islam]. (n.p). (3rd edn.) (Arabic).
Āmidī, ’A. S. (d. 1233). (1983). Al-Mubīn fī Sharḥ Ma‘āni Alfāẓ al-Ḥukamā’ wal-Mutakallimīn [The Clarifier in explaining the meaning of sayings by thinkers and theologians]. (Ḥasan Maḥmūd al-Shāfi‘ī Ed.). Al-Qāhirah: maktabat Wahbah.
Anderson, J. W. (1989–90). A Comparison of Arab and American conceptions of “effective” persuasion. The Howard Journal of Communications, 2/1, 81–114.
al-Anṣārī, M. J. (2003). al-Hawīyah al-‘Arabīyah Asīrat al-Ta’rīkh [Arab identity—the prisoner of history]. Al-Ḥayāt. 23-1-2003. 5. http://www.arabphilosophers.com/Arabic/adiscourse/aarabic/arabic_articles/Identity/Arabic_Identity_History.htm
Araby, A. al-, (n.d.). Lying in Islam. Islam Review. http://islamthreat.com/word/lying_in_islam.pdf
Arazi, A. (2013). S̲h̲iʿr (Poetry). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Online, 2013.
Ariff, T., Nur. A., and Mugableh, A. I. (2013). Speech act of promising among Jordanians. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. University of Malaysia (USIM), 3(13), 248–266. http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vol 3(13) July 2013/29.pdf
’Arīnī, al-S. al-B. (1963). al-Sharq al-Ausaṭ wal-ḥurub al-Ṣalībīyah [The Middle East and the Crusades]. al-Qāhirah: Dār al-Nahḍah Al-‘Arabīyah.
Atawneh, A. M. (2009). The discourse of war in the Middle East: Analysis of media reporting. Journal of Pragmatics, 41, 263–278.
Atiyeh, G. N. (Ed.). (1977). Arab and American cultures: A conference. American Enterprise Institute Press.
Atoum, A. O., & Al-Simadi, F. A. (2000). The effect of presentation modality on judgments of honesty and attractiveness. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 28(3), 269–278(10).
Badri, M. (2000/1420). (Tr. Abd al-Wahid Lu’lu’a). Contemplation: An Islamic psychospiritual study. Hernndon, VA.: The International Institute of Islamic Thought.
Baghawī, M. al-Ḥ. b. M. (d. 1122/516). (1987). Ma‘ālim al-tanzīl (Tafsīr al-Baghawī) [Landmarks of the revelation— Baghawi’s Qur’ān commentary]. (Ed. Khālid ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-‘Akk and Marwān Suwār). Bairūt: Dār al-ma‘rifah.
Baihaqī, A. A, b. al-Ḥ. al-, A. (d. 485 H.). (1344H.). al-Sunan al-kubrā [The major traditions]. Bairūt.
Baihaqī, I. b. M. (1999). Al-Maḥāsin wal-Masāwī (Merits and Faults). Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-’Ilmīyajah.
Bakr A. (2008). “Adab al-Ikhtilāf”. (The etiquette of disagreement). In: Multaqā Rābiṭat al-Wāḥah al-Thaqāfīyah. file:///C:/Users/ilai/Desktop/%D8 %AF%D8 %B1 %D8 %A7 %D8 %B3 %D8 %A7 %D8 %AA%20 %D9 %82 %D9 %8A%D9 %85 %D8 %A9 %20 %D8 %B9 %D9 %86 %20 %D8 %A3 %D8 %AF%D8 %A8 %20 %D8 %A7 %D9 %84 %D8 %AD%D9 %88 %D8 %A7 %D8 %B1 %20 %D9 %88 %D8 %A7 %D9 %84 %D8 %A7 %D8 %AE%D8 %AA%D9 %84 %D8 %A7 %D9 %81 %20-%20 %D9 %85 %D9 %84 %D8 %AA%D9 %82 %D9 %89 %20 %D8 %B1 %D8 %A7 %D8 %A8 %D8 %B7 %D8 %A9 %20 %D8 %A7 %D9 %84 %D9 %88 %D8 %A7 %D8 %AD%D8 %A9 %20 %D8 %A7 %D9 %84 %D8 %AB%D9 %82 %D8 %A7 %D9 %81 %D9 %8A%D8 %A9.htm;
Balāsī, M. al-S ’Al. (1993). Min khāṣa’iṣ al-‘Arabīyah [Of the properties of Arabic]. Majallat al-Lisān al-‘Arabi, 37, 102–111.
Barakat, H. (1993). The Arab world: Society, culture, and state. University of California Press.
Barakat, R. A. (1973). Arabic Gestures. The Journal of Popular Culture, 6(4), 749–793.
Bateson, M. C. (1967). Arabic Language Handbook. Georgetown University Press.
Bāzī, M. (2010). Al-Ta’wīlīyah al-‘Arabīyah: Naḥwa namūdhaj tasānudī fī fahm al-nuṣūṣ wal-khiṭābāt [Arabic hermeneutic: Towards a model of mutually-supportive understanding of texts and speech]. Beirūt: Al-Dār al-‘Arabīyah lil-‘Ulūm Nāshirūn.
Bednare, M. (2006). Bühler, K. (1879–1963). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd ed., pp. 145–147).
Beedham, C. (2005). Language and meaning: The structural creation of reality (Studies in functional and structural linguistics) Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co.
Ben Ami, S. (2004). Hazit lelo oref [A front without a rearguard: A voyage to the boundaries of the Peace process]. Tel Aviv: Yediot Aharonot. (Hebrew).
Bergman, E. M. (2011). Orality. Encyclopaedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. General Editor K. Versteegh. Brill Online.
Bishai, W. (1972). Negotiations and peace agreements between Muslims and non-Muslims in Islamic history. In S. A. Hanna (Ed.), Medieval and Middle Eastern Studies in honor of Aziz Suryal Atiya (pp. 50–61). Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Bond, C. F., Jr., Adnan, O., Adnan, M., & Bonser, R. N. (1990). Lie detection across cultures. Journal of Nonverbal Behaviors, 4(3), 189–204.
Bozeman, A. B. (1971). The future of the law in a multicultural world. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bruder, M., Haffke, P., Neave, N., Nouripanah, N., & Imhoff, R. (2013). Measuring Individual differences in generic beliefs in conspiracy theories across Cultures: Conspiracy mentality questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 1–15.
Bukhārī. ‘A. M. b. I. (d. 870/256). Ṣaḥīḥ. (Tr. M. Muhsin Khan).
Busoul, A. (1998). Prophet Muhammad’s High Manners, Skokie.
Butler, C. S. (2008). The interpersonal function of Language. In Vennelakaṇṭi Prakāśaṃ (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of the Linguistic Sciences: Issues and Theories. New Delhi: Allied Publishers.
Carter, J. (1995). Keeping faith: Memoirs of a president. Fayetteville, AR: University of Arkansas Press Kindle Location 5282.
Castillo, P. A., & Mallard, D. (2011). Preventing cross-cultural bias in deception judgments: The role of expectancies about nonverbal behavior. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1–12
Cohen, D. (1967). L’Homonymie des opposes. In J. Berque & H.- P. Charney (Eds.). L’ambivalence dans la culture arabe (pp. 25–50). Paris: Editions Anthorpos.
Cohen, R. (1987). Problems of intercultural communication in Egyptian-American diplomatic relations. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11(74–92), 1990.
Dagnall, N., Drinkwater, K., Parker, A., Denovan, A., & Parton, M. (2015). Conspiracy theory and cognitive style: A Worldview. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00206/full
Dajani, O. M. (2005). Surviving opportunities: Palestinian negotiating patterns in peace talks with Israel. In: T. Wittes Cofman. (Ed.) (2005). How Israelis and Palestinians negotiate: A cross-cultural analysis of the Oslo peace process. Washington DC: US Institute of Peace.
Dakake, M. (2006). Hiding in plain sight: The practical and doctrinal significance of secrecy in Shi‘ite Islam. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74(2), 324–355.
Dimashqī, A. J. b. ’A. (1977/1397). Al-ishārah ilā maḥāsin al-tijārah, (Pointing out the merits of commerce). (Al-Bishrī al-Shāranjī, Ed.) Cairo: Maktabat al-Kullīyāt al-Azharīyah.
Donaldson, D. M. (1943). Truth and Falsehood in Islam. Muslim World, 33, 276–284.
Doss, M. (2014). Some remarks on the oral factor in Arabic linguistics. Studia Orientalia Electronica, 75, 49–62. file:///C:/Users/ilai/Downloads/45177-32126-1-PB%20(1).pdf
Ḍumairīyah, ’U. J. (1414 H.). al-Ḥaqq fī al-sharī‘ah al-Islāmīyah [Truth in Islamic Law]. Majallat al-buḥūth al-Islāmīyah, 40, 349–377. http://www.alifta.net/Fatawa/fatawaDetails.aspx?BookID=2&View=Page&PageNo=1&PageID=5626
Dundes, A. (1980). Interpreting folklore. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Eggen, N. S. (2010). ‘Abd al-Laṭīf al-Ḥusayn: Al-amānah fi’l-Islām wa-ātharuhā fi’l-Mujtama’ [Trust in Islam and its impact on society]. Islam and Civilisational Renewal (ICR), 2(1), 198–201. www.iais.org.my/icr/index.php/icr/article/download/217/210
Eidelman, J. (2002). Double talk. Jewish Frontier, Vol. LXVIII/2(642). http://www.jewishfrontier.org/frontier/jf_4-02_eidelman.html.
Elahee, M. N., Suzan, L. K., & Nasif, N. (2002). National culture, trust, and perceptions about ethical behavior in intra-and cross-cultural negotiations: An analysis of NAFTA countries. Thunderbird International Business Review, 44(6), 799–818.
El-Shamy, H. M. (1995). Folk traditions of the Arab world: A Guide to motif classification. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
El-Shiyab, Said. (1992). The Structure of argumentation in Arabic: Editorials as a case study. Ph.D.: Heriot-Watt University.
Ellis, D. G., & Maoz, I. (2002). Cross-cultural argument interactions between Israeli-Jews and Palestinians. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 30/3, 181–194. http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rjac20#.VjSEDbcrLIU
Elserafy, A., & Arseven, S. (2013). Politeness, directness and honorifics in Egyptian Arabic and Turkish requests: A Cross-cultural study. In Edulearn 13 Proceedings, 3569–3574.
Fahmi, I. (1983). Negotiating peace in the Middle East. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Fakhry, M. (1991). Ethical Theories in Islam. Leiden: Brill.
Fandy, M. (2000). Information technology, trust, and social change in the Arab world. The Middle East Journal., 54(3), 378–394.
Fārābī, Abū Naṣr al-, (1924-6). Kitāb al-Fuṣūṣ [Book of gems] Haidarabad.
Fattah, K., & Fierke, K. M. (2009). A Clash of emotions: The politics of humiliation and Political violence in the Middle East. European Journal of International Relations, 15(1), 67–93.
Feghali, E. (1997). Arab cultural communication patterns. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21(3), 345–378.
Finkel, J. (1927). A Risālah (epistle) of al-Jahiz. JAOS, 47.
Foddy, M., Platow, M. J., & Yamagishi, T. (2009). Group-based trust in strangers: The role of stereotypes and expectations. Psychological Science, 20(4), 419–422.
Furaiḥ, M. b. ’A. (2014). Al-ṣidq. [Speaking the truth]. Islāmīyāt. http://www.islameiat.com/Pages/Subjects/Default.aspx?id=16338&cat_id=24
Ghazālī, A. M. ibn Muḥammad, (n.d.). Iḥyā’ ‘Ulūm al-Dīn [The revival of the religious sciences]. Beirut: Dār al-Ma‘rifah lil-Ṭibā‘ah wal-Nashr.
Giles, H. (2012). The handbook of intergroup communication. New York & London: Routledge.
Gilsenan, M. (1976). Lying, honor, and contradiction. In B. Kapfere (Ed.), Transactions and meaning (pp. 191–219). Philadelphia: ISHI.
Glenn, E. S., Witmeyer, D., & Stevenson, K. A. (1977). Cultural styles of persuasion. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 1, 52–66.
Goffman, Erving. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA, US: Harvard University Press.
Goitein, S. D. (1977). Individualism and Conformity in Classical Islam. In: A. Banani, S. Vryonis, & G. E. von Grunebaum (Eds.), Center for Near Eastern Studies; Giorgio Levi della Vida Conference (05th: 1975: University of California, Los Angele( Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz,
Gray, M. (2010). Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World: Sources and politics. Routledge.
Gregg, G. S. (2005). The Middle East: A cultural psychology: Series in culture, cognition, and behavior. NY: Oxford University Press.
Grice, P. (1975) Logic and Conversation. In: P. Cole & J. L. Morgan (Eds.), (1975). Speech acts. Syntax and semantics (Vol. 3, pp. 41–58). New York: Academic Press.
Griefat, Y., & Katriel, T. (1989). Life demands musayara: Communication and culture among Arabs in Israel. In S. Ting-Toomey & F. Korzenny (Eds.), Language, Communication, and Culture (pp. 121–138). Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Gudykunst, W. B., Ting-Toomey, S., & Chua, E. (1988). Culture and Interpersonal Communication. Sage Publications, Inc.
Hafez, Z. (2014). Some Western concepts through Arab eyes: Toward a new Arab epistemology. Contemporary Arab Affairs, 7(3), 421–436.
Haidar, A. H., & Balfakih, N. M. (1999). United Arab Emirates science students’ views about the epistemology of science. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the national association for research in science teaching, Boston, MA, April. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED444843.pdf. 11.
Hall, E. T. (1973). The Silent Language. New York: Doubleday.
Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond Culture. New York: Doubleday.
Hall, E. T. (1982). Context and meaning. In L. Porter & R. Samovar (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader. Belmont: Wadsworth.
Hamid, A. A. (2004). The Islamic Personality. http://www.biharanjuman.org/Islam/Personality1.htm
Hardin, R. (Ed.). (2009). Distrust. Sage Foundation.
Hatim, B. (1991). The pragmatics of argumentation in Arabic: The rise and fall of a text type. Text and Talk, 11, 189–199.
Hatim, B. (1997). Communication across Cultures. Translation theory and contrastive text linguistics. Exeter, UK: University of Exeter Press.
Heinrichs, W. P., & Knysh, A. Ramz. (2015) Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, & W. P. Heinrichs, Eds.). Brill Online.
Hendon, D. W., Hendon, R. A., & Herbig, P. (1996). Cross-cultural business negotiations. Westport, London: Quorum Books.
Herzog, C. (2014). Small and large scale conspiracy theories and their problems. In: M. Butter & M. Reinkowski, (Eds.), Conspiracy Theories in the United States and the Middle East: A comparative approach. (Vol. 29, pp. 192–211). Walter de Gruyter.
Hill, D. R. (1971) The termination of hostilities in early Arab conquests A.D. 634–656. London: Routledge.
Hitti, P. (1958). History of the Arabs. NY: Oxford University Press.
Ḥāfiẓ, Ṣ. (2002). Ḥarb al-Muṣṭalaḥāt wal-Ṣirā‘ al-Ḥaḍārī [The war over terminology and the clash of civilizations]. In A. ‘Abd al-Raḥīm, (Ed.). (2002). Ḥarb al-Muṣṭalaḥāt: Dirāsah Taṣḥīḥīyah lil-Mafāhīm wal- Muṣṭalaḥāt al-Mutadāwilah fī al-I‘lām al-‘Arabīḥaula al-Ṣirā‘ al-‘Arabī– al-Ṣahyūnī. Cairo: Ittiḥād al-Ṣaḥafīyīn al-‘Arab.
Ḥamidullah, M. (1956). Majmū‘at al-wathā’iq al-sīyāsīyah fī al-‘ahd al-nabawī wal-khilāfah al-rāshidah. [A collection of the political documents from the time of the Prophet and the Righteous Caliphate]. Cairo: Lajnat al-Ta’līf wal-Tarjamah wal-Nashr. Also, Beirut, 1969.
Ibn Abī al-Dunyā, ’A. B. M. (d. 894.) (1973). Kitāb makārim al-akḥlāq [The Noble Qualities of Character]. (J. A. Bellamy, Ed.). Wiesbaden, F. Steiner.
Ibn Ḥanbal, A. (1997). Al-Wara‘. (Piousness). Ryādh: Dār al-ṣam‘ī.
Ibn Mājjah. (1952). Sunan. (Ed. Muḥammad Fū’ād ‛Abd al-Bāqī). Cairo: Dār Iḥyā’ al-Kutub al-‘Arabīyah.
Ibn Manī‘, ’A. b. S. (1413 H.) Baḥth fī al-wa‘d wa-ḥukm al-ilzām bil-wafā’ bihi diyānah wa-qaḍā’ [A study on Promise and the obligation to keep it according to religion and law]. Majallat al-Buḥūth al-Islāmīyah, 36. http://www.alifta.net/Fatawa/fatawaDetails.aspx?languagename=ar&View=Page&PageID=5054&PageNo=1&BookID=2
Ibn Qutaibah, Abū Muḥammad ‛Abd Allah b. Qāsim, (d. 376 H.) (1986). ‛Uyūn al-Akhbār [The most important information] (Taḥqīq Yūsuf ’Alī.) Ta’wīl. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmīyah.
Ibn Qutaibah, (1966/1386). Ta’w’īl Mukhtalaf al-Ḥadīth [Interpreting the variety of Hadith]. Cairo.
Ibn Wahb, al-Jāmi’ fī al-Ḥadīth [The comprehensive treatise on Hadith] (Arabic). http://library.islamweb.net/hadith/display_hbook.php?bk_no=39&pid=12567&hid=205
Ibrahim, R. (2010). How Taqiyya Alters Islam’s Rules of War Defeating Jihadist Terrorism. Middle East Quarterly, 17(1), 3–13.
Ikle, F. C. (1964). How nations negotiate. New York: Harper Row.
Ismail, S. (2010). Arabic and English persuasive writing of Arabs from a contrastive rhetoric perspective (Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania). http://dspace.iup.edu/bitstream/handle/2069/265/Soliman%20Ismail.pdf?…1
Israeli, R. (Ed.). (1978). The public diary of president Sadat. Vol. I: The road to war, September 1970–October 1973. Leiden: Brill.
Jāḥiẓ, ’A. b. B. (1958). (Ed. C. Pellat). Risālah fī al-ḥakamain wa-taṣwīb amīr al-mu’minīn ‘Alī b. Abī Ṭālib fī Fi‘lihi. (An epistle on the two arbiters and support for commander of the faithful, ‘Alī. b. Abī Ṭālib’s actions). Beirut: Al-Maṭba‘ah al-Kātūlīkīyah (Arabic).
Jāḥiẓ, ’A. b. B. (1965). K. al-Ḥayawān [Book of animals]. (Ed. A. Hārūn), Miṣr: Muṣṭafā al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī wa-Aulāduhu. (2nd ed.) (Arabic).
Jamal, Amaney. (2007). “When Is Social Trust a Desirable Outcome?: Examining Levels of Trust in the Arab World.” Comparative Political Studies. 40. http://cps.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/40/11/1328.
Jazā’irī, A. J. (1964). Minhāj al-Muslim [The Muslim’s way]. Al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah (Arabic).
Jindo, J. Y. (2009). Toward a poetics of the biblical mind: Language, culture, and cognition. Vetus Testamentum, 59(2), 222–243.
Johnstone Koch, B. (1983). Presentation as proof: The language of Arabic rhetoric. Anthropological Linguistics, 47–60.
Johnstone, B. (1990). ‘Orality’ and discourse structure in modern standard Arabic. In E. Mushira (Ed.), Perspectives on Arabic linguistics I (pp. 215–233). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins.
Joseph, J. E. (2006). Identity and language. Encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed., pp. 486–492). http://www.sciencedirect.com.rproxy.tau.ac.il/science/article/pii/B0080448542012839
Joseph, R. (1980). Toward a semiotics of the Middle Eastern cultures. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 12, 319–328.
Kadhim, R. Ó. al-Amidī & al-Huseini, H. ’A. (2012). Promise and threat in English and Arabic religious texts. Majallat al-’Amīd, 1(1–2), 1–110.
Kallas, E. (2015). Nationalism and Language. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Managing Editors Online Edition: Lutz Edzard, Rudolf de Jong. Brill Online.
Kanaana, S. (2005). The Arab ear and the American eye: A Study of the role of the senses in culture. Cultural Analysis, 4, 29–45. (Translated and with notes by Ibrahim Muhawi).
Karabenick, S. A., & Moosa, S. (2005). Culture and personal epistemology: US and Middle Eastern students’ beliefs about scientific knowledge and knowing. Social Psychology of Education, 8(4), 375–393.
Keddie, N. R. (1963). Symbol and Sincerity in Islam. Studia Islamica, 27–63.
Khadduri, M. (1955). War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Khadduri, M. (1984). The Islamic Conception of Justice. Baltimore and London.
Khadduri, M. (2016). Hudna. In: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, & W. P. Heinrichs, (Eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Online.
Khalilieh, H. (2016). Amān. In K. Fleet, G. Krämer, D. Matringe, J. Nawas, & E. Rowson. (Eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three. Brill Online.
Khalid, M. (1977). The sociocultural determinants of Arab diplomacy. In G. N. Atīyeh (Ed.), Arab and American Cultures (pp. 123–142). Washington D.C.: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research.
Khalidi, T. (1994). Arabic historical thought in the Classical period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Khan, R. Y. (2008). Self and secrecy in early Islam. Columbia, S. C.: University of South Carolina Press.
Khomeini, R. (c1981). Islam and Revolution. Berkeley: Mizan Press.
Kittler, M. G., Rygl, D., & Mackinnon, A. (2011). Special review article: Beyond culture or beyond control? Reviewing the use of Hall’s high-low-context concept. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 11(1), 63–82.
Knysh, A. (2013), Ṣidḳ. Encyclopaedia of Islam, (2nd ed.). Brill Online.
Koopmans, R. (2014). Religious fundamentalism and out-group hostility among Muslims and Christians in Western Europe. No. SP VI 2014-101. WZB Discussion Paper, 2014.
Kulainī, M. b. Y. (1980). Al-Furū‘ min al-Kāfī [The applied jurisprudence of the book al-Kāfī]. (Third impression.) Beirut: Dār Ṣa‘b (Arabic).
Lanham, R. A. (2006). The economics of attention: Style and substance in the age of information. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Lawrence, T. E. (1917). The 27 Articles. The Arab Bulletin, August 20, 1917. http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php.
LeBaron, M. (2003). Culture-based negotiation styles. In: G. Burgess & H. Burgess (Eds.), (2003). Cross-cultural communication. Beyond intractability. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/culture_negotiation.
Lederach, J. P. (1991). Of nets, nails, and problems: The folk language of conflict resolution in a central American setting. In K. Avruch, P. W. Black, & J. A. Scimecca (Eds.), Conflict resolution: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 165–186). Westport, Connecticut, London: Praeger.
Lewisohn, L. (2010). Tawakkul. Encyclopaedia of Islam, (2nd ed.) (P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, & W. P. Heinrichs, Eds.). Brill, 2010. Brill Online. http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-7447 v. X, p. 376.
Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and power. (Transl. from the German with introd. by Gianfranco Poggi.) Chichester [etc.]: Wiley.
Lustig, M. W. (1988). Cultural and communication patterns of Saudi Arabians (pp. 101–103). International Communication: A Reader.
MacDonald, D. B., & Calverley, E. E. (2012). Ḥaḳḳ. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, & W. P. Heinrichs, Eds.).
Maḥmūd, ʻA. ʻA. (1991). Manhāj al-tarbīyah ʻinda al-ikhwān al-muslimīn: dirāsah taḥlīlīyah [Education methods of the Muslim Brotherhood: An analytical study]. al-Manṣūrah [Egypt]: Dār al-Wafā’ (Arabic).
Mālik b. Anas. (1994). Muwaṭṭa’ (The Approved). Dār Ḥiyal al-‘Ulūm al-‘Arabī (Arabic). http://library.islamweb.net/newlibrary/display_book.php?ID=1&idfrom=1&idto=2060&bk_no=7
Marta, J. K. M., Attia, A., Singhapakdi, A., & Atteya, N. (2003). A Comparison of ethical perceptions and moral philosophies of American and Egyptian business students. Teaching business Ethics, 7(1), 1–20.
Masīrī, ‘Abd al-Wahhāb Muḥammad. (2003a). Al-Ḥaqīqah wal-Wahm fī Brūṭūqūlāt Ḥukamā’ Ṣahyūn [Truth and Fancy in the Protocols of the Elders of Zion]. Al-Manār al-Jadīd, 21, 20–37 (Arabic).
Masīrī, ’A. M. (2003b). Fī al-Khiṭāb wal-Muṣṭalaḥ al-Ṣahyūnī: Dirāsah Naẓarīyah wa-Taṭbīqīyah [On Zionist discourse and terminology: A theoretical and applied study]. Al-Qāhirah: Dār al-Shurūq (Arabic).
Masliyah, S. (1999). A cross-cultural misunderstanding: The case of the Arabic expression inshallah, ‘If God Wills’. Dialog on language instruction., 13(1), 97–116.
Māwardī, a. al-Ḥ. A. al-Baṭrī. (1987). Adab al-Dunyā wal-dīn [The ethics of this world and of religion]. (M. Ṣabāḥ, Ed.,) Beirut: Dār Maktabat al-Ḥayāh (Arabic).
Meehan, M. (1999). Israeli textbooks and children’s literature promote racism and hatred toward Palestinians and Arabs. Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, September 1999.
Mehdi, H. (2014). Why is the Muslim world in thrall to conspiracy theories? New Republic, September 5, 2014.
Merkin, R. (2012). Middle Eastern impression-Management communication. Cross-Cultural Research, 46(2), 109–132.
Minqarī, N. (d. 212). (1981). Waq‘at Ṣiffīn [The battle of Siffin]. (Ed. ‛Abd al-Salām Hārūn.) Cairo: Maktabat al-Khānijī (Arabic).
Muasher, M. (2008). The Arab Center: The Promise of Moderation. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
Mustakāwī, Ṭ, A., Ḥasanein, Abū Maḥmūd, M., & Abū Ṭīrah, M. Ḥ. (Eds.). (2004). Al-Afkār al-namaṭīyah wal-ṣirā‘ al-duwalī, ma‘ al-taṭbīq ‘alā minṭaqat al-Sharq al-Ausaṭ. (Stereotypical thinking and international struggle: Applications to the Middle East.) In: M. S. Khalīl (Ed.), Ṣūrat al-Dhāt wal-Ākhar: Dirāsāt fī al-Tafā‘ul al-Ijtimā‘ī [The Struggle of the self and the other: Studies in social interaction]. (pp. 205–271). Cairo: Dār al-Ḥarīrī (Arabic).
Naffsinger, P. A. (1994). ‘Face’ among the Arabs: the preservation of personal dignity as a wellspring of Muslim behavior. Center for the study of intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol8no3/html/v08i3a05p_0001.htm
Nasira, H. (2008). Scepticism in the Arab World: The base of conspiracies. In: Arab Insight, 2(2), 103–113. http://scholar.google.co.il/scholar?start=380&q=arab+emotion+culture&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5
Nawawī, M. Y. b. S. (1985/1405). Rauḍat al-ṭālibīn wa–‘umdat al-muftīn [The garden of the seekers and the support of mufties]. Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī (Arabic).
Nazzal, A. R. (2005). The pragmatic functions of the recitation of Qur’anic verses by Muslims in their oral genre: The Case of insha’Allah, God’s willing’. Pragmatics, 15(2/3).
Nehme, M. G. (2003). Fear and anxiety in the Arab world. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Nelson, G. L., Al Batal, M., & El Bakary, W. (2002). Directness vs. indirectness: Egyptian Arabic and US English communication style. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(1), 39–57.
Noorudin, M. S. (2000/1421). Arabic: A language, a being. Light upon light. http://www.lightuponlight.com/islam/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=314
Nordbruch, G. (2012). Rationalizing the hidden hand: ‘Abd al-Wahhāb al-Masīrī’s Theory of ‘The Judaization of Society’. In E. Webman (Ed.), The global impact of the protocols of the elders of Zion: A Century-Old Myth (pp. 229–238). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge.
Nuṣairāt, S. (1997). Al-Shakhṣīyah al-Urdunīyah baina al-bu’d al-waṭanī wal-bu‘d al-qaumī [The Jordanian personality between the dimensions of state and nation]. Amman: Dār al-Bashīr (Arabic).
Ṭabarī, M. b. J. (1965). Annales quos scripit Abu Djafar Muḥammad ibn Djarīr at-Óabarī, (ed. M. J. de Goeje), (Beirut, Brill’s edition in photocopy) (Arabic).
Offe, C. (1999). How can we trust our fellow citizens. Democracy and trust, 52, 42–87.
Ong, W. J. (2013). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the world. London.
Pipes, D. (1992). Dealing with Middle Eastern Conspiracy Theories. Orbis, 41–56.
Pollock, D. (January 27, 2012.) Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood and its record of double Talk. The Washington Post http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/egypts-muslim-brotherhood-and-its-record-of-double-talk/2012/01/26/gIQALhO4TQ_story.html#.
Pote, F. (2009). An American conversation. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorsHouse.
Pundak, R. (2012). Interview, 23-5-12.
Qal’ajī, Q. (1997). Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn al-Ayyūbī: Qiṣṣat al-ṣirā‘ baina al-sharq wal-gharb khilāl al-qarnain al-thānī ‘ashar wal-thālith ’ashar. [Saladin: the tale of the struggle between the East and the West during the 12th and 13th Centuries]. Sharikat al-Maṭbū’āt lil-Tauzī’ wa-al-Nashr (Arabic).
Qaraḍāwī, Y., Kadhib. (Lie) (26-9-2013) al-Mauqi’ al-Rasmī li-Samāḥat al-‘Allāmah Yūsuf al-Qaraḍāwī (Arabic). http://www.qaradawi.net/new/articles/6109-2012-08-10-09-17-00
Qazwīnī, J. (10th cent.). (Internet http://www.alwaraq.net/index2.htm?i=156&page=1). Al-Īḍāḥ fī ‘Ulūm al-Balāghah.
Quinlivan, J. T. (1999). Coup-proofing: Its practice and consequences in the Middle East. International Security, 24(2), 131–165.
Qurei, Aḥmad. (2005). Al-riwāyah al-Filisṭinīyah al-kāmilah lil-mufāwaḍāt min Uslū Ilā kharīṭat al-ṭuruq 2 – Mufāwḍāt Kāmb Dīfīd 1995–2000. [The complete Palestinian account of the negotiations: From Oslo to the Road Map. 2—the Camp David negotiations]. Beirūt: Mu’asasat al-Dirāsāt al-Filisṭīnīyah (Arabic).
Qutb, S. (1990). Milestones. Indianapolis, IN: American Trust Publications.
Quṭb, S. (2001). In the Shade of the Qurʾān, (M. A. Salahi & A. A. Shamis, Trans.). Leicester: The Islamic Foundation.
Rabinovitch, I. (1998). Saf Ha-Shalom – Isra’el ve-Suria 1992–1996 (The Brink of Peace: Israel and Syria 1992–1996). Tel Aviv: Miskal. (Hebrew).
Rayner, S. E. (1991). The theory of contracts in Islamic Law: A Comparative analysis with particular reference to the modern legislation in Kuwait, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. London; Boston: Graham & Trotman.
Rivers, C., & Lytle, A. L. (2007). Lying, cheating foreigners!! Negotiation ethics across cultures. International Negotiation, 12(1), 1–28.
Rosen, L. (1984). Bargaining for reality. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Rosen, L. (2002). The Culture of Islam: Changing aspects of contemporary Muslim Life. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Rosen, L. (2010). Islamic Concepts of Justice. The SAGE Handbook of Islamic Studies, 69–82.
Sa’adeddin, M. A. (1989). Text development and Arabic-English negative interference. Applied Linguistics, 10(1). 36–51. http://applij.oxfordjournals.org/content/10/1/36
Sa‛dāwī, N. Ḥ. (1961). Al-Ḥarb wal-salām zaman al-‛udwān al-ṣalībī [War and peace during the Crusade aggression]. Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahḍah al-Miṣrīyah (Arabic)
Salameh, F. (2011). Does Anyone Speak Arabic? The Middle East Quarterly, 18(4), 47–60.
Salem, E. (1970). Problems of Arab political behavior. In M. Lutfīya & C. W. Churchill (Eds.), Readings in Arab Middle Eastern Societies and Cultures. The Hague and Paris: Mouton.
Schiffrin, D. (1984). Jewish argument as sociability. Language in Society, 13, 311–335.
Searle, J. R. (1969). Speech Acts: An essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press.
Searle, John R., & Vanderveken, Daniel. (1985). Foundations of iIllocutionary logic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J. (1996). What is a Speech Act? In: I. Hutchby, (Ed.), Pragmatics, discourse analysis and sociolinguistics. Los Angeles [u.a.]: Sage.
Shāfi‘ī, a. A. Allah M. b. I, (1403/1983). Al-Umm [The mother]. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, (Second Impression) (Arabic).
Shaibānī, M. b. al-Ḥ. (1958). k. al-sīyar al-kabīr [The major book on [military] campaigns]. (Ed. Muḥammad Abū Zahrah). Cairo: Maṭba at Jāmi at al-Qāhirah (Arabic).
Shaqīr, Ṣ. al-Ḥaqīqah. (Truth) Al-Mausū‘ah-‘Arabīyah. [Arab Encyclopaedia] (Arabic). Vol. 8. http://www.arab-ency.com/index.php?module=pnEncyclopedia&func=display_&m=1
Sharabi, H. (1988). Neopatriarchy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Shehadi, K. (1997). The poverty of Arab democracy. In: P. Salem (Ed.), Conflict resolution in the Arab world (pp. 216–233.). Beirut: AUB Press.
Sher, G. (2001). Bemerhak Negi’ah [Just Beyond Reach: The Israeli-Palestinian Peace Negotiations 1999–2001]. Israel: Hemed. (Hebrew).
Shimizu, H. (1989). Philosophy of the Islamic law of contract: A comparative study of contractual Justice. Chūtō Kenkyūjo: Kokusai Kaigaku.
Simmel, G. (1906). The sociology of secrecy and secret societies. American Journal of Sociology, 11, 441–498.
Simon, U. (2015) Istiʿāra (Metaphor). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Managing Editors Online Edition: Lutz Edzard, Rudolf de Jong. Brill Online.
Suchan, J. (2014). Toward an understanding of Arabic persuasion: A western perspective. International Journal of Business Communication, 51(3), 279–303.
Suleiman, M. W. (1999). Islam, Muslims and Arabs in America: The other of the other of the other… Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 19(1), 33–47.
Suleiman, Y. (2004). A war of words: Language and conflict in the Middle East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Suyūṭī, ‛Abd al-Raḥmān b. Abū Bakr Jalāl al-Dīn. (1967). Al-khaṣā’iṣ al-kubrā. [The Prophet’s great special quelites]. Cairo (Arabic).
Suyūṭī, J. ‘A. (d. 911H.) (1951/1370). Al-ittqān fī ‘ulūm al-Qur’ān. [The Perfect Guide to the Sciences of the Qur’an]. Miṣr: Maktabat Muṣṭ‘afā al-Bābī al-Ḥalabī (Arabic).
Suyūṭī, J. ‘A. (1971). Al-Muẓhir fī ‛Ulūm al-Lughah wa–Anwā‘ihā, [The demonstrator about the varieties of linguistics]. Ed. M. A. Jād al-Maulā Bek, M. A. Ibrāhīm, & A. M. al-Bajāwī ([al-Qāhirah]: Dār Iḥyā’ al-Kutub al-‘Arabīayh, (Third impression) (Arabic).
Sweetser, E. E. (1989). The Definition of lie: An examination of the folk models underlying a semantic prototype. In D. Holland & N. Quinn (Eds.), Cultural models in language and thought (pp. 43–66). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Taimūr, A. (1970). al-Amthāl al-‘āmmīyah. [Popular proverbs]. 3rd printing, [al-Qāhirah]: Lajnat Nashr al-Mu’allafāt al-Taymūrīyah (Arabic).
Tawalbeh, A., & Al-Oqaily, E. (2012). In-directness and politeness in American English and Saudi Arabic requests: A cross-cultural comparison. Asian Social Science, 8(10), 85.
Tha’ālabī, (1989/1409). Fiqh al-lughah wa-sirr al-‘Arabīyah. [Linguistics and the secret of Arabic]. (Ed. Sulaimān Salūm al-Bawwāb). Damascus: Dār al-Ḥikmah (Arabic).
Tikrītī, A. (1971/1391). Jamharat al-Amthāl al-Baghdādīyah. [A collection of Baghdadi proverbs]. Bagdad: Maṭba‘at al-Irshād (Arabic).
Trompenaars, F., & Turner, C. H. (1997). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding cultural diversity in business. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Turkī, Sulaimān b. Turkī al-, (1416H.). Bai‘ al-Taqsīṭ wa-Aḥkāmuhu. (Sale by installments and its rules). http://majles.alukah.net/t134398 (Arabic).
Verbrugge, S., Dieussaert, K., Schaeken, W., & Van Belle, W. (2004). Promise is debt, threat another matter: The effect of credibility on the interpretation of conditional promises and threats. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58(2), 106–112.
Verbrugge, S., Dieussaert, K., Schaeken, W., & Van Belle, W. (2005). Compelling promises and hollow threats: why you can keep someone to his promise but not to his threat. In Proceedings of the 27th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 2307–2312).
Versteegh, K. (2014). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh University Press.
Wakin, J. A. (1972). The function of documents in Islamic law. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Wohidul Islam, M. (1998). Dissolution of contract in Islamic law. Arab Law. Quarterly, 336.
Yamagishi, Toshio, and Midori Yamagishi. 1994. “Trust and Commitment in the United States and Japan,” Motivation and Emotion 18, 129-166.
Zaharna, R. S. (1995). Bridging cultural differences: American public relations practices and Arab communication patterns. Public Relations Review, 21, 241–255.
Zaharna, R. S. (2007). Words as bridges: Information-versus relations-based rhetorical strategies in the war on terror. Panel Presentation in 1.3.
Zajonc, Robert B. (2000). “Feeling and Thinking: Closing the Debate over the Independence of Affect.” In: Forgas, Joseph P. (2000). Feeling and Thinking: The Role of Affect in Social Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zak, M. (1996). Husein Osse Shalom [Husein Makes Peace]. Ramat-Gan: Bar Ilan University press. (Hebrew).
Ziani, A. K., Elareshi, M., & Gunter, B. (2015). The use of mobile phone and the internet in obtaining local news in GCC regions: University Students’ perspectives. http://donnishjournals.org/djmcs/pdf/2015/March/Elareshi-et-al.pdf
Zīnātī, A. (1315/1896). Al-Ṭarīqah al-jadīdah fī al-hijā’ wal-tamrīn wal-muṭāla‘ah. [The new method of spelling, exercise, and reading]. Cairo: Būlāq (Arabic).
Acknowledgments
I should like to thank my friends and colleagues who read the manuscript and contributed to it considerably: Danni Bar-Tal, Benzion Bezalel, Neil Weiner.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Alon, I. (2016). Some Comments on Language as a Barrier for Trust in Arabic-Speaking Islam. In: Alon, I., Bar-Tal, D. (eds) The Role of Trust in Conflict Resolution. Peace Psychology Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43355-4_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43355-4_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-43354-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-43355-4
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)