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The Role of Trust in Conflict Resolution pp 83–115Cite as

Some Comments on Language as a Barrier for Trust in Arabic-Speaking Islam

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Abstract

This paper aims at attracting attention to some properties of Arabic that may invite mutual distrust between native speakers and those of other languages. Cultures, including Arabic-speaking Islam, often differ in their perceptions of language, i.e., its definition, roles, objectives, properties and evaluation, and like many other differences, these constitute a fertile substratum for distrust. Among the most conspicuous implications of these perceptions is the division of people into in- and out-groups, which tinges their trustworthiness. To put the role of language into context, the paper will discuss briefly the concept of Trust in Arabic-speaking Islam, and then move to examining the role of language in it. In doing so basic linguistic components of the concept of trust are treated, the most important of which are Truth, Falsity, the Hidden and the Overt. These are examined in Islamic/Arabic epistemological context, i.e., knowledge, facts, and doubt. Next, trust-related linguistic actions are discussed, i.e. speech and intention vs. actions, argumentation and persuasion, haggling, promise, agreement, deceit and credence. The conclusion of the paper is that hidden linguistic differences are a trap in the area of inter-cultural trust, the awareness of which is indispensable for the creation of trust.

For Gadi, Ofra, Ravit and Kfir.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Suleiman 1999, 44; For an example of popular network view, see “Islam is a Lie, Muslims are Liars and the Press Promulgates the Lies.” In: Islam Exposed: Online Petition for Documentary Exposure of Islam. Saturday, May 07, 2011. http://islamexposed.blogspot.co.il/2011/05/islam-is-lie-muslims-are-liars-and.html; Mustakāwī et al. 2004, 219. In the political arena, see, e.g. http://www.israpundit.com/archives/40122.

  2. 2.

    In the Qur’ān 3:71, 94, 5:41, 6:28; al-Jāḥiẓ, in: Finkel 1927, 327; and, e.g. president Sadat in Israeli 1978, 193–194.

  3. 3.

    E.g. former president of Egypt, Husni Mubarak’s speech at the Arab Summit Meeting, held in Cairo in 2000; Qurei 2005, 7 on the Palestinian negotiational principles. Saib Arekat, in Sher 2001, 149. Rabin, in Dan Pattir, private communication to me, 11-12-08; and Olmert Ehud: The Importance of Personal Trust between Leaders, 3 Apr 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cmGkdSAfDU4.

  4. 4.

    E.g. Al-Rāfi‘ī, the Egyptian poet (d. 1937), Waḥī al-Qalam. Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tijārīyah al-Kubrā. (n.d.), pp. 35–6) as quoted in ‘Abbūd and ‘Abd al-’Āl, 1990, 202.

  5. 5.

    Ajami 1981, 28 (Quoting Zakī Naguīb Maḥmūd).

  6. 6.

    For a universal classification of the roles of language, into representative, expressive, and appellative/vocative see Bednare 2006, 145–147. Also, Butler 2008, 43.

  7. 7.

    Atiyeh 1977, 177. For “national language” at large, see Joseph 2006.

  8. 8.

    Nehme 2003, 144: “Arabs tend to use language the way a drunk uses a lamppost for support rather than for light.” The phenomenon in other Languages at large—see Sweetser 1989, 44, quoting Goffman 1974. For the role of language in low-context languages (American), see Grice’s conversational maxims (Grice 1975, 41) that call for being informative, brief, relevant, unambiguous.

  9. 9.

    E.g. rhetorical structures. See Ismail 2010, 13.

  10. 10.

    For the concept, see Hall 1976. The division has come under fire, e.g. by Kittler et al. 2011, 63–82. Unfortunately, Hall’s work lacks reference to the Arab culture. Also, Elahee et al. 2002, 799.

  11. 11.

    It is believed to have started with the polymath al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 869) (Jāḥiẓ 1965, III, 130).

  12. 12.

    Of course the idea of poetic licence is legitimate. For the switch of positions in the West too, see Lanham 2006, 262.

  13. 13.

    See, e.g. the case of Egypt contract law: Rayner 1991, 163.

  14. 14.

    Merkin 2012, during the talks with the Syrians.

  15. 15.

    Ajami 1981, 28: (Quoting Zaki NGUIB Mahmud) For the Syrians, see Shamma 1986, 108.

  16. 16.

    For the information-relation dichotomy, see also Zaharna 2007.

  17. 17.

    In Arabic, the longer the compliment the more sincere it is considered to be. Carla (Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition) University of Minnesota. (2013). Arabic Compliments. http://www.carla.umn.edu/speechacts/compliments/arabic.html. Arabs also use similes and metaphors in compliments more than their American English counterparts.” (Momani 2009, 51).

  18. 18.

    This quality is criticised, among others, by Hatim 1997, 196: unlike in English, in Arabic “one can simply do more by saying more”. On the other hand, a proverb has it that “the shorter the speech—the more useful it is”. (Taimūr 1970, 381).

  19. 19.

    Griefat et al. Griefat and Katriel 1989, 121; Zaharna 1995, 249. By contrast, see Grice’s conversational Maxims, Grice 1975, 45ff.

  20. 20.

    Feghali 1997, 361; Anderson 1989/90, 92: the Saudi’s “circled around issues rather than proceeding in a linear fashion from one topic to the next. Americans were likely to view such an approac as deliberately deceptive”.

  21. 21.

    For example, when making a request, Arabs, especially Saudis (Tawalbeh and al-Oqaily 2012, 85), Jordanians (Momani 2009, iv; 88), and Egyptians of a higher class than that of the object of request, were more direct than Americans, see Elserafy and Arseven 2013, 569; Fattah and Ravindranath 2009, 33. Also, research showed that the division between Americans and Jordanians with respect to directness is not all that sharp (Al-Momani 2009, 128).

  22. 22.

    For a definition, see Bergman 2011, 80. For the orality of Arabic, see Doss 2014; Also, Johnstone 1990.

  23. 23.

    Lisān al-‘Arab, s.v. “Lughah”.

  24. 24.

    Adonis, as quoted by Sharabi 1988, 86.

  25. 25.

    Such as “seeing” for “understanding”, “perspectives” for “positions”, etc. (Dundes 1980, 87).

  26. 26.

    A good example is given by Minqarī 1981, 491, where two contradictory actions were justified as “[both] taken for the sake of God.”

  27. 27.

    A case in hand was the Oslo talks, when the Israelis (Pundak and Singer) demanded sharp and clear statements from the more general and vague Palestinians (Pundak 2012).

  28. 28.

    See, e.g. Ikle 1964, 12. For modern negotiations, see Ben Ami 2004, 30; al-Sādāt 1978, 402; Fahmi 1983, 202; Sher 2001, 93 etc., This approach is not exclusive to Arabs, of course: Richard the Lionheart, too, e.g. adopted top-bottom procedure in his negotiations with Salah al-Din (Sa‘dāwī 1961, 55).

  29. 29.

    E.g. ‘Alwān (n.d); Masīrī 2003a. For Masīrī on the issue, see Nordbruch 2012.

  30. 30.

    Mehdi 2014. For example, sixty percent of the Lebanese, and seventy five percent of Egyptians do not believe that the 9/11 attack was carried out by Muslims. http://wikiislam.net/wiki/Muslim Statistics—Conspiracy Theories, quoting Muslim-Western Tensions Persist—Pew Research Center, July 21, 2011; Koopmans, 2014.

  31. 31.

    See in particular, Gray 2010, Chap. 3 for modern Middle Eastern history.

  32. 32.

    Al-Sayyid 1980, 11. In another definition, the proportion is different, yet emotions hold a considerable position in it: Abu Da’ud 1989, 201.

  33. 33.

    LeBaron 2003, 5; Glenn et al. 1977, 61: “For the U.S.: 197 factual-inductive, 8 axiomatic-deductive, and 11 intuitive-affective. … For the Arab countries: 13 factual-inductive, 143 axiomatic- deductive, and 360 intuitive-affective.”.

  34. 34.

    al-Simadi 2000b, 460–461; Al-Simadi 2000a, 441; Ibn Qutaibah 1963, III, 155 (1986–III, 174): “A man’s goodness is evident in his face.”.

  35. 35.

    Badri 2000/1420,16, (Quoting ‘Aqqād, al-Lughah al-Shā‘irah, 70).

  36. 36.

    Balāsī 1993, 103 (quoting al-‘Aqqād 1960). al-Lugha al-Shā‘irah Mukhaimar, 42.

  37. 37.

    See Kallas 2015, esp. Chap. 7. Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 803. Suleiman 2004, 38; Salameh 2011, 48, (Quoting Abū Khaldūn Sāṭi‘) Al-Ḥuṣrī, (d.1967) (1985). Abḥāth Mukhtārah fi-l-Qawmīyah al-‘Arabīyah (Selected studies on Arab nationality). Beirut: Markaz Dirāsāt al-Wiḥda al- ‘Arabīyah; Nuṣairāt 1997, 218; Hafez 2014, 434; Barakat 1993, 182.

  38. 38.

    Suleiman 2004, 38. Also, Abū Ṭālib 1997, 137: The three more important elements in national character—language, religion and ethics. The point of culture is to create a generation continuity.

  39. 39.

    Some 73 percent of Arab respondents, (The 7th Annual ASDA’A Burson-Marsteller Arab Youth Survey.

  40. 40.

    E.g. the Arab League’s declaration in its 2007 Beirut Summit Meeting.

  41. 41.

    It is of interest, however, that Jordanian students judged, by audio-visual data, Americans to be more honest than their own compatriots (Atoum et al. 2000, 276).

  42. 42.

    Suleiman 2004, 46. E.g. a book by the title “The March against the Language of the Qur’ān” (al-Zaḥf ‘alā Lughat al-Qur’ān) by the Saudi journalist Aḥmad ‘Abd al-Ghafūr ‘Aṭṭār (1966). Various Arab authors use military terminology to describe the language war. Thus, the internal part of this conflict is guided by outside forces (Farrūkh, ‘Umar. (1961) Al-Qaumīyah al-Fuṣḥah. Beirut: Dār al-‘Ilm lil-Malāyīn).

  43. 43.

    Maḥmūd 1991, 813; Versteegh 2014, 174. For a different view, see Salameh 2011, 52.

  44. 44.

    Suleiman 2004, 52, quoting Muhammad ‘Abd al-Rahman Marhaba (tashwthilt, 69).

  45. 45.

    See, e.g., Al-Mahrooqi, R., Denman, C. J., & Sultana, T. (2016). Factors Contributing to the Survival of Standard Arabic in the Arab World: An Exploratory Study. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 24(3).

  46. 46.

    Khadduri 1984, 154. It is more in use by the Hanafite, than by other schools of the law.

  47. 47.

    Giles 2012, 381. See also Luhmann 1979, 43; Yamagishi and Yamagishi 1994; Offe 1999: 56.

  48. 48.

    Qutb 1990, 12. p. 116; Quṭb, Fī Ẓilāl al-Qur’ān, Sūrat al-Anfāl.

  49. 49.

    MacDonald and Calverley 2012. For Rosen 1984, 60, even the meaning of “real” in Islamic culture is different from that of the West.

  50. 50.

    E.g. al-Quraishī 2007, (2). Bakr 2008. Muasher 2008, 124, about the dangers of subscribing to an absolute truth in the Arab world.

  51. 51.

    al-Anṣārī 2003, 5. Sharabi 1988, 89: “nonverbal proof (empirical evidence) is rendered secondary or even irrelevant;” Ali 1993, 69; Bateson 1967, 80–1, (quoted in Hatim 1997, 168.) This relation between language and reality is not exclusive to Arabic. See, e.g. Beedham 2005, 16; 58.

  52. 52.

    Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 136; Jazā’irī 1964, 164; Māwardī 1987, 261, 22; Baihaqī 1999, I, 169.

  53. 53.

    For Lie as a speech act, see Sweetser 1989, 43.

  54. 54.

    Baiḍāwī (d. 1286), in his commentary on Qur’ān, 2:9. The OED’s definition only adds the intention to deceive to this one.

  55. 55.

    Mausū‘at al-Akhlāq, “Ṣuwar al-Kadhib.” http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/2695.

  56. 56.

    Qur’ān, 6:21, 93; 6:144; 7:37; 10:17; 11:18; 18:15; 29:68; 61:7.

  57. 57.

    E.g. Arab leaders are frequently accused of it in Israel: See, e.g. Eidelman 2002; Pollock 2012; Dicky, C., Newsweek, 14.1.91.

  58. 58.

    Ibn Abī al-Dunyā 1973, 116–117/144; Qaraḍāwī. http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=383&version=1&template_id=8&parent_id=12.

  59. 59.

    Tirmidhī, Jāmi’, Bāb al-Birr wal-ṣilah ‘an Rasūl Allah. 4/325 No. 1927:

  60. 60.

    Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 137,5; Zīnātī Ṭarīqah, I, 35,4; Rosen 1984, 131.

  61. 61.

    Suyūṭī, Khṣā’iṣ, 492 (referring to Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, ‘Ilm, 38 inter al.). Suyūṭī, Kifāyah, III, 326, 3.

  62. 62.

    Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 137, So did Abraham who presented his wife Sarah as his sister. Ibn Qutaibah 1966, 34.

  63. 63.

    Jāḥiẓ 1958, 444; Fakhry 1991, 57 (quoting Bāqillānī, Tamhīd, 344); Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 138, 11.

  64. 64.

    E.g. Bukhārī vol. 3 book 49 ch. 2 no. 857. A similar permission—also in Jewish law, Shulhan Arukh, Hoshen Mishpat, article 262, sub article 21.

  65. 65.

    Ibn Mājah 1952, vol. 4 book 24 (Jihād) ch. 27 no. 2833 p.181.

  66. 66.

    Ibrahim 2010, 5 (quoting Sami Mukāram, At-Taqīyah fi ‘l-Islam (London: Mu’assasat at-Turāth ad-Durzī 2004, 7, author’s translation.) Taqīyah is of fundamental importance in Islam. Practically every Islamic sect agrees to it and practices it … We can go so far as to say that the practice of taqlyyah is mainstream in Islam, and that those few sects not practicing it diverge from the mainstream … Taqīyah is very prevalent in Islamic politics, especially in the modern era.”.

  67. 67.

    Al-Suyūṭī, Itqān, 36, 3. See also Madjāz in EI 2.

  68. 68.

    See Sztompka in this volume, p. 18.

  69. 69.

    Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. (2002). “Sirr”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Leidn: Brill. http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/sirr-SIM_8901?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=sirr

  70. 70.

    Ibn Ḥayyān al-Bustī, Rauḍat al-‘Uqalā’, 191. Quoted in al-Mausū‘ah al-Akhlāqīyah, al-Akhlāq al-Maḥmūdah, Kitmān al-Sirr, Aqwāl al-Salaf wal-Qudamā’ fī Kitmān al-Sirr. http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/1245.

  71. 71.

    Qur’ān, Isrā’: 34; Tirmidhī, Jāmi’, Adab, 32.

  72. 72.

    Th’ālabī, al-Tamthīl, 420, quoted in Mausū‘at al-Akhlāq, al-Durar al Sunnīyah, Al-Mausū‘ah al-Akhlāqīyah, http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/1590. Also, Furaiḥ 2014.

  73. 73.

    Al-Durar al-Sunnīyah, al-Mausū‘ah al-Akhlāqīyah, al-Akhlāq al-Maḥmūdah, Kitmān al-Sirr. http://www.dorar.net/enc/akhlaq/1247. al-Hasan (d. 670 A.D.) in Al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 132; al-Māwardi (d. 1058 A.D.,) in Mausū’at al-Akhlāq. Al-Akhlāq al-Madhmūmah, Ifshā’ al-Sirr, citing al-Māwardi, Adab al-Duniā, 306ff.

  74. 74.

    Alf Lailah wa-Lailah 2004, 9th night, I, 43.

  75. 75.

    Bāzī 2010, 31 (Quoting Ṭabarī).

  76. 76.

    A Probably fabricated hadith. Bāzī 2010, 27. (Quoting al-Suyūṭī).

  77. 77.

    See OED, s.v. Persuasion, for a definition.

  78. 78.

    Salhi 2001, 3.

  79. 79.

    Aḥmad and ‘Abd al-Mājid 2014, 17. Also, Nasira 2008, 112. For a slightly different view, see al-Zarījāwī 2013, 288. For the philosophical dichotomy see Agassi, above.

  80. 80.

    For logic and rhetoric as universal, Ismail 2010, 232.

  81. 81.

    This division is not universally recognised, however. See, e.g. al-Zarījāwī 2013, 280.

  82. 82.

    E.g. Shukrī Muṣṭafā, the leader of the Takfīr wa-Hijrah movement. Al-Azm 2007, 291, as do 53 % of Lebanese respondents; 42 % of Tunisians, and average of 15.6 % of Moroccans, Egyptians, Iraqis, Jordanians and the Palestinians. “Pew Report on Muslim World Paints a Distressing Picture.” https://whyevolutionistrue.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/picture-11.png.

  83. 83.

    For the four core-beliefs of authority-direct knowledge, see Karabenick and Moosa 2005, 375.

  84. 84.

    According to 46 % of a survey respondents. Haidar and Balfakih 1999, 11.

  85. 85.

    Hirschfeld, Ya’ir. (2012). Interview, 4-3-12, quotes Faisal Huseini about himself. See also Naffsinger 1994.

  86. 86.

    For some comparative observations on Central American traditional conflict resolution argumentation, see Lederach 1991, 184.

  87. 87.

    Ellis and Maoz 2002, 184, citing Spolsky and Walters (1985).

  88. 88.

    Feghali 1997, 361; quoting Johnston Koch 1983, 53; 55. See also Minqarī, Ṣiffīn, 485,18: “This religion is based on absolute self-surrender [to God] (taslīm). Do not, therefore, mix syllogism (qiyās) with it”.

  89. 89.

    Hatim 1997, 164 distinguishes, in this context, between functional and nonfunctional repetitions in Arabic.

  90. 90.

    Ismail 2010, 87 (quoting Sa‘adeddin 1989, 38); Suchan 2014, 286. Exaggeration not considered lying—al-Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 140.

  91. 91.

    Khadījah, “Baina al-Aqwāl wal-Af‘āl”, Mudawwanat al-Ghad al-Afḍal, http://vip30.blogspot.co.il/2010/05/blog-post_2043.html.

  92. 92.

    Baṣrī, al-Ḥasan al-, Ijlā’ al-Ṣadīd bi-Maw‘iẓ al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī Abī Sa‘īd (The removal of pus in al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī's exhortations). Shabakat al-‘Ulūm al-Salafīyah. http://aloloom.net/vb/showthread.php?t=27515.

  93. 93.

    Ibn Manī‘, 1413H. 147. For the speech act of “promise” see Searle, 1969 56 ff. For the future element of the promise—see his condition number 3, p. 57.

  94. 94.

    Qur’ān, 5:1; 9:4; 9:7. Also, Zuḥailī Āthār, 322; 752; Ghazālī, Iḥyā’, III, 132, and many others. Keeping a promise is as telling about a person as does testimony about him. (Ibn Manī’ 1413H., 135).

  95. 95.

    As did the Prophet Muhammad. Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 133.

  96. 96.

    Masliyah 1999, 98; Lustig 1988; Keddie 1963; Hamid 2004; Nazzal 2005, 271.

  97. 97.

    Ibn Manī‘ 1413H., 157; Ibn Wahb, al-Jāmi‘, Hadith No. 205.

  98. 98.

    See Qur’ān, 9:73–87. For the concept see “al-Munāfiḳūn.” Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Brill Online, 2014.

  99. 99.

    E.g. al-Turkī 1416H. 446. See Abdullah and Abd al-Rahman 2015 for the legal obligation to keep promises.

  100. 100.

    Abū Da’ūd 1989, 4/29. On the other hand, Ishmael was known for his keeping his promises, to the extent that he waited for twenty two days for a man who forgot to show for a meeting he had agreed to have with him. (Ghazālī Iḥyā’, III, 132–3.)

  101. 101.

    Ariff, Nur, and Mugableh 2013, 259, quoting Abd el-Jawad 2000, 218 for a definition of the vow: “The speech act by which a person binds himself to do or not to do a certain specific physical or juridical act, by invoking the name of God or one of the divine attributes.”.

  102. 102.

    For example, in Jordan, the Prophet Muhammad, the Qur’ān, “Religion”, but also relatives, or body organs. (Al-Mutlaq 2013, 226ff.).

  103. 103.

    Here belong also ultimata and warnings, but I will not treat them in this paper.

  104. 104.

    Searle and Vanderveken 1985, 193. See also empirical research corroborating this difference: Verbrugge, et al. 2004, 110; Verbrugge et al. 2005, 2311.

  105. 105.

    Baghawī 1987, Tafsīr, Surah 8:59, vol. 2, p. 257.

  106. 106.

    Hill 1971, 50; 74; e.g. Heraclios, in Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, Volume 1, Book 1, Number 6; Saladin—Qal‘ajī 1997, 66,19.

  107. 107.

    For breaking agreements in Islamic law, see Wohidul Islam 1998, 336.

  108. 108.

    Nawawī 1985/1405, X 339, 5; al-Shaibānī Syar, V, 1697.

  109. 109.

    Ḥamidullah 1956, 395; Ibn al-Kharrāṭ, Kitāb al-Aḥkām al-Wusṭā, III, 320: (Quoted in Busoul 1998, 74).

  110. 110.

    Baihaqī, 1344, V, 339: Prohibition on selling an item that is not the seller’s property.

  111. 111.

    Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, I, 111: Need for fixed measures and weighs.

  112. 112.

    Bukhārī Ṣaḥīḥ, II, 76, 17: Lies and concealment that nullify commercial deals.

  113. 113.

    See above, Bar-Tal et al.’s point that Trust and distrust are learned.

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Acknowledgments

I should like to thank my friends and colleagues who read the manuscript and contributed to it considerably: Danni Bar-Tal, Benzion Bezalel, Neil Weiner.

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  1. Department of Philosophy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Ilai Alon

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  1. Department of Philosophy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Ilai Alon

  2. School of Education, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Daniel Bar-Tal

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Alon, I. (2016). Some Comments on Language as a Barrier for Trust in Arabic-Speaking Islam. In: Alon, I., Bar-Tal, D. (eds) The Role of Trust in Conflict Resolution. Peace Psychology Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-43355-4_6

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