Abstract
The aim of this article is to investigate whether techniques used for artificial reproduction safeguard or promote the future child’s welfare, and whether they are capable of offering potential future children the best possible chance for the best life, in keeping with guidelines derived from the Principle of Procreative Beneficence. This analysis will be important for discerning the parental responsibility of couples or single reproducers who plan to use or have used any of these techniques, and also for those who defend the Principle of Procreative Beneficence, which implicitly entails the use of techniques of assisted human reproduction. The paper concludes that prospective parents should be informed not only of the specific level of risk and potential damages associated with each IVF technique, but also of the fact that given the available evidence none of the standard IVF techniques can be considered to be risk free, there is reason to believe that none of these techniques can be reconciled with the responsibility of prospective parents to the promote welfare of future children and/or to offer them the best possible life.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
It is important to note that the importance of the new epigenetic model of development for discussions of IVF techniques does not depend on the highly controversial status of the embryo as a person. Regardless of when we believe personal status is achieved, the epigenetic model changes how we understand the genetic and developmental basis of the health of future children, and this is the relevant issue under discussion here.
- 2.
In fact, sensitivity is so high during the periconceptional period that deficiencies or excesses of a range of macro and micronutrients during the final stages of oocyte growth and post-fertilisation development can lead to impairments in foetal development and long-term offspring health (Sinclairand Watkins 2013).
- 3.
The data can be consulted at https://www.sartcorsonline.com/rptCSR_PublicMultYea-r.aspx?ClinicPKID=0
References
Alikani, M., G. Calderon, G. Tomkin, J. Garrisi, M. Kokot, and J. Cohen. 2000. Cleavage anomalies in early human embryos and survival after prolonged culture in vitro. Human Reproduction 15: 2634–2643.
Anckaert, E., M. DeRycke, and J. Smitz. 2013. Culture of oocytes and risk of imprinting defects. Human Reproduction Update 19(1): 52–66.
CDC – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2013. 2011 Assisted reproductive technology, Fertility clinic success rates report. Resource document. Division of Reproductive Health. http://www.cdc.gov/art/ART2011/PDFs/ART_2011_Clinic_Report-Full.pdf. Accessed 24 Sept 2014.
Ceelen, M. 2007. Body composition in children and adolescents born after in vitro fertilization or spontaneous conception. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 92: 3417–3423.
Champagne, F.A. 2012. Interplay between social experiences and the genome: Epigenetic consequences for behaviour. Advances in Genetics 77: 33–57.
Davies, M.J., V.M. Moore, K.J. Willson, P. Van Essen, K. Priest, H. Scott, E.A. Haan, and A. Chan. 2012. Reproductive technologies and the risk of birth defects. New England Journal of Medicine 366: 1803–1813.
Dempster, E.L., R. Pidsley, L.C. Schalkwyk, S. Owens, A. Georgiades, F. Kane, S. Kalidindi, M. Picchioni, E. Kravariti, T. Toulopoulou, R.M. Murray, and J. Mill. 2011. Disease-associated epigenetic changes in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Human Molecular Genetics 20(24): 4786–4796.
Denomme, M.M., and M.R. Mann. 2012. Genomic imprints as a model for the analysis of epigenetic stability during assisted reproductive technologies. Reproduction 144(4): 393–409.
Desmyttere, S., M. Bonduelle, J. Nekkebroeck, M. Roelants, I. Liebaers, and J. De Schepper. 2009. Growth and health outcome of 102 2-year-old children conceived after preimplantation genetic diagnosis or screening. Early Human Development 85(12): 755–759.
Diario ABC – Noticias Salud. 2015. Los niños ‘probeta’ no tienen más problemas de salud que los ‘naturales’. Resource Document. http://www.abc.es/salud/noticias/20150131/abci-seguridad-fertilizacion-vitro-201501301439.html. Accesed 2 Feb 2015.
Dupont, C., and C. Sifer. 2012. A review of outcome data concerning children born following assisted reproductive technologies. ISRN Obstetrics and Gynecology 2012: 405382.
el Hajj, N., and T. Haaf. 2013. Epigenetic disturbances in in vitro cultured gametes and embryos: Implications for human assisted reproduction. Fertility and Sterility 99(3): 632–641.
Ertzeid, G., and R. Storeng. 2001. The impact of ovarian stimulation on implantation and fetal development in mice. Human Reproduction 16: 221–225.
Feuer, S.K., L. Camarano, and P.F. Rinaudo. 2013. ART and health: Clinical outcomes and insights on molecular mechanisms from rodent studies. Molecular Human Reproduction 19(4): 189–204.
Gardner, D.K., R. Hamilton, B. McCallie, W.B. Schoolcraft, and M.G. Katz-Jaffe. 2013. Human and mouse embryonic development, metabolism and gene expression are altered by an ammonium gradient in vitro. Reproduction 146(1): 49–61.
Gluckman, P.D., M.A. Hanson, T. Buklijas, F.M. Low, and A.S. Beedle. 2009. Epigenetic mechanisms that underpin metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Nature Reviews Endocrinology 5(7): 401–408.
Güell, F. 2013. El estatuto biológico y ontológico del embrión humano: el paradigma epigenético del siglo XXI desde la teoría de la esencia de Xavier Zubiri. Berna: Peter Lang.
Hansen, M., C. Bower, E. Milne, N. De Klerk, and J.J. Kurinczuk. 2005. Assisted reproductive technologies and the risk of birth defects – A systematic review. Human Reproduction 20(2): 328–338.
Hansen, M., J.J. Kurinczuk, E. Milne, N. De Klerk, and C. Bower. 2013. Assisted reproductive technology and birth defects: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproduction Update 19(4): 330–353.
Henningsen, A.A., M. Gissler, R. Skjaerven, C. Bergh, A. Tiitinen, L.B. Romundstad, U.B. Wennerholm, O. Lidegaard, A. Nyboe Andersen, J.L. Forman, and A. Pinborg. 2015. Trends in perinatal health after assisted reproduction: A nordic study from the CoNARTaS group. Human Reproduction 30: 710–716. doi:10.1093/humrep/deu345.
Hvidtjorn, D., J. Grove, D.E. Schendel, M. Vaeth, E. Ernst, L.F. Nielsen, and P. Thorsen. 2006. Cerebral palsy among children born after in vitro fertilization: The role of preterm delivery – A population-based, cohort study. Pediatrics 118: 475–482.
Jablonka, E., and M. Lamb. 2005. Evolution in four dimensions – Genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kirkegaard, K., J.J. Hindkjaer, and H.J. Ingerslev. 2012. Human embryonic development after blastomere removal: A time-lapse analysis. Human Reproduction 27(1): 97–105.
Kläver, R., A. Bleiziffer, K. Redmann, C. Mallidis, S. Kliesch, and J. Gromoll. 2012. Routine cryopreservation of spermatozoa is safe-evidence from the DNA methylation pattern of nine spermatozoa genes. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 29(9): 943–950.
Kohda, T., and F. Ishino. 2013. Embryo manipulation via assisted reproductive technology and epigenetic asymmetry in mammalian early development. Philosophical Transaction Royal Society of London B 368: 20120353.
Krisher, R.L. 2004. The effect of oocyte quality on development. Journal of Animal Science 82: E14–E23.
Lazaraviciute, G., M. Kauser, S. Bhattacharya, P. Haggarty, and S. Bhattacharya. 2014. A systematic review and meta-analysis of DNA methylation levels and imprinting disorders in children conceived by IVF/ICSI compared with children conceived spontaneously. Human Reproduction Update 20(6): 840–852.
Lee, E.R., and R.S. Alisch. 2012. Early-life disruption of epigenetic marks may contribute to the origins of mental illness. Epigenomics 4(4): 355–357.
Leeson, P., and T. Baskaran. 2013. “Assisted” reshaping of the fetal heart? Circulation 128: 1398–1399.
Lie, R.T., A. Lyngstadass, K.H. Ørstavik, L.S. Bakketeig, G. Jacobsen, and T. Tanbo. 2005. Birth defects in children conceived by ICSI compared with children conceived by other IVF-methods; a meta-analysis. International Journal of Epidemiology 34(3): 696–701.
Lister, R., E.A. Mukamel, J.R. Nery, M. Urich, C.A. Puddifoot, N.D. Johnson, J. Lucero, Y. Huang, A.J. Dwork, M.D. Schultz, M. Yu, J. Tonti-Filippini, H. Heyn, S. Hu, J.C. Wu, A. Rao, M. Esteller, C. He, F.G. Haghighi, T.J. Sejnowski, M.M. Behrens, and J.R. Ecker. 2013. Global epigenomic reconfiguration during mammalian brain development. Science 341: 6146.
Lorthongpanich, C., L.F. Cheow, S. Balu, S.R. Quake, B.B. Knowles, W.F. Burkholder, D. Solter, and D.M. Messerschmidt. 2013. Single-cell DNA-methylation analysis reveals epigenetic chimerism in preimplantation embryos. Science 341: 1110–1112.
Louis, G.M.B., M.A. Cooney, C.D. Lynch, and A. Handal. 2008. Periconception window: Advising the pregnancy-planning couple. Fertility and Sterility 89: e119–e121.
Manipalviratn, S., A. De Cherney, and J. Segars. 2009. Imprinting disorders and assisted reproductive technology. Fertility and Sterility 91: 305–315.
Massaro, P.A., D.L. MacLellan, P.A. Anderson, and R.L. Romao. 2015. Does intracytoplasmic sperm injection pose an increased risk of genitourinary congenital malformations in offspring compared to in vitro fertilization? A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Urology 193(5): 1837–1842.
McDonald, S.D., K. Murphy, J. Beyene, and A. Ohlsson. 2005a. Perinatel outcomes of singleton pregnancies achieved by in vitro fertilization: A systematic review and meta–analysis. Journal d’obstétrique et gynécologie du Canada 27(5): 449–459.
McDonald, S., K. Murphy, J. Beyene, and A. Ohlsson. 2005b. Perinatal outcomes of in vitro fertilization twins: a systematic review and meta–analyses. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 193(1): 141–152.
McLaughlin, C.C., M.S. Baptiste, M.J. Schymura, P.C. Nasca, and M.S. Zdeb. 2006. Maternal and infant birth characteristics and hepatoblastoma. American Journal of Epidemiology 163: 818–828.
Medical Protection Society. 2012. Parental responsibility. Resource document. http://www.medicalprotection.org/mps–factsheet–parental–responsibility.pdf. Accessed 20 Oct 2014.
Moll, A., S. Imhof, J. Cruysberg, A.Y. Schouten–van Meeteren, M. Boers, and F. Van Leeuwen. 2003. Incidence of retinoblastoma in children born after in-vitro fertilization. Lancet 361: 309–310.
Monzo, C., D. Haouzi, K. Roman, S. Assou, H. Dechaud, and S. Hamamah. 2012. Slow freezing and vitrification differentially modify the gene expression profile of human metaphase II oocytes. Human Reproductiom 27(7): 2160–2168.
Nelissen, E.C.M., J.C.M. Dumoulin, F. Busato, L. Ponger, L.M. Eijssen, J.L.H. Evers, J. Tost, and A.P.A. van Montfoort. 2014. Altered gene expression in human placentas after IVF/ICSI. Human Reproduction 29(12): 2821–2831.
Olsen, A. 2015. Punishing parents: Child removal in the context of drug use. Drug and Alcohol Review 34(1): 27–30.
Padhee, M., S. Zhang, S. Lie, K.C. Wang, K. Botting, I.C. McMillen, S.M. MacLaughlin, and J.L. Morrison. 2015. The periconceptional environment and cardiovascular disease: Does in vitro embryo culture and transfer influence cardiovascular development and health. Nutrients 7(3): 1378–1425.
Pandey, S., A. Shetty, M. Hamilton, S. Bhattacharya, and A. Maheshwari. 2012. Obstetric and perinatal outcomes in singleton pregnancies resulting from IVF/ICSI: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproduction Update 18(5): 485–503.
Pelkonen, S., A.-L. Hartikainen, A. Ritvanen, R. Koivunen, H. Martikainen, M. Gissler, and A. Tiitinen. 2014. Major congenital anomalies in children born after frozen embryo transfer: A cohort study 1995–2006. Human Reproduction 29(7): 1552–1557.
Petridou, E.T., T.N. Sergentanis, P. Panagopoulou, M. Moschovi, S. Polychronopoulou, M. Baka, A. Pourtsidis, F. Athanassiadou, M. Kalmanti, V. Sidi, et al. 2012. In vitro fertilization and risk of childhood leukemia in Greece and Sweden. Pediatric Blood & Cancer 58: 930–936.
Reefhuis, J., M.A. Honein, L.A. Schieve, A. Correa, C.A. Hobbs, and S.A. Rasmussen. 2009. The national birth defects prevention study assisted reproductive technology and major structural birth defects in the United States. Human Reproduction 24: 360–366.
Reigstad, M.M., I.K. Larsen, T.O. Myklebust, T.E. Robsahm, N.B. Oldereid, L.A. Brinton, and R. Storeng. 2016. Risk of cancer in children conceived by assisted reproductive technology. Pediatrics 137(3), e20152061.
Rimm, A.A., A.C. Katayama, M. Diaz, and K.P. Katayama. 2004. A meta-analysis of controlled studies comparing major malformation rates in IVF and ICSI infants with naturally conceived children. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics 21(12): 437–443.
Rimoldi, S., C. Sartori, E. Rexhaj, D. Cerny, R. von Arx, R. Soria, M. Germond, Y. Allemann, and U. Scherrer. 2014. Vascular dysfunction in children conceived by assisted reproductive technologies: Underlying mechanisms and future implications. Swiss Medical Weekly 144: w13973.
Rooke, J.A., T.G. McEvoy, C.J. Ashworth, J.J. Robinson, I. Wilmut, L.E. Young, and K.D. Sinclair. 2007. Ovine fetal development is more sensitive to perturbation by the presence of serum in embryo culture before rather than after compaction. Theriogenology 67: 639–647.
Rossi, A.C., and V. D’Addario. 2011. Neonatal outcomes of assisted and naturally conceived twins: Systematic review and meta–analysis. Journal of Perinatal Medicine 39(5): 489–493.
Sánchez-Calabuig, M.J., A.P. López-Cardona, R. Fernández-González, P. Ramos-Ibeas, N. Fonseca, R. Laguna, E. Pericuesta, A.A. Gutiérrez, and P. Bermejo-Álvarez. 2014. Potential health risks associated to ICSI: Insights from animal models and strategies for a safe procedure. Frontiers in Public Health 2: 241.
Savulescu, J. 2001. Procreative beneficence: Why we should select the best children. Bioethics 15: 413–426.
Savulescu, J., and G. Kahane. 2009. The moral obligation to create children with the best chance of the best life. Bioethics 23(5): 274–290.
Scherrer, U., E. Rexhaj, Y. Allemann, C. Sartori, and S.F. Rimoldi. 2015. Cardiovascular dysfunction in children conceived by assisted reproductive technologies. European Heart Journal 36: 1583–1589.
Sinclair, K.D., T.G. McEvoy, E.K. Maxfield, C.A. Maltin, L.E. Young, I. Wilmut, P.J. Broadbent, and J.J. Robinson. 1999. Aberrant fetal growth and development after in vitro culture of sheep zygotes. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility 116: 177–186.
Sinclair, K.D., and A.J. Watkins. 2013. Parental diet, pregnancy outcomes and offspring health: Metabolic determinants in developing oocytes and embryos. Reproduction, Fertility and Development 26(1): 99–114.
Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, N. Okun, and S. Sierra. 2014. Pregnancy outcomes after assisted human reproduction. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada 36(1): 64–83.
Stromberg, B., G. Dahlquist, A. Ericson, O. Finnstrom, M. Koster, and K. Stjernqvist. 2002. Neurological sequelae in children born after in-vitro fertilisation: A population-based study. Lancet 359: 461–465.
Sundh, K.J., A.A. Henningsen, K. Källen, C. Bergh, L.B. Romundstad, M. Gissler, A. Pinborg, R. Skjaerven, A. Tiitinen, D. Vassard, B. Lannering, and U.B. Wennerholm. 2014. Cancer in children and young adults born after assisted reproductive technology: A Nordic cohort study from the Committee of Nordic ART and Safety (CoNARTaS). Human Reproduction 29(9): 2050–2057.
Tararbit, K., N. Lelong, A.-C. Thieulin, L. Houyel, D. Bonnet, F. Goffinet, B. Khoshnood, and EPICARD Study Group. 2013. The risk for four specific congenital heart defects associated with assisted reproductive techniques: A population-based evaluation. Human Reproduction 28: 367–374.
Tarín, J.J., M.A. García-Pérez, and A. Cano. 2014. Assisted reproductive technology results: Why are live-birth percentages so low? Molecular Reproduction & Development 81: 568–583.
Valenzuela-Alcaraz, B., F. Crispi, B. Bijnens, M. Cruz-Lemini, M. Creus, M. Sitges, J. Bartrons, S. Civico, J. Balasch, and E. Gratacós. 2013. Assisted reproductive technologies are associated with cardiovascular remodeling in utero that persists postnatally. Circulation 128: 1442–1450.
Wen, J., J. Jiang, C. Ding, J. Dai, Y. Liu, Y. Xia, J. Liu, and Z. Hu. 2012. Birth defects in children conceived by in vitro fertilization and intracytoplasmic sperm injection: A meta-analysis. Fertility and Sterility 97(6): 1331–1337.
Whitelaw, N., S. Bhattacharya, G. Hoad, G.W. Horgan, H. Hamilton, and P. Haggarty. 2014. Epigenetic status in the offspring of spontaneous and assisted conception. Human Reproduction 29(7): 1452–1458.
Williams, C.L., K.J. Bunch, C.A. Stiller, M.F.G. Murphy, B.J.W. Botting, H. Wallace, M. Davies, and A.G. Sutcliffe. 2013. Cancer risk among children born after assisted conception. The New England Journal of Medicine 369: 1819–1827.
Wu, Y., Z. Lv, Y. Yang, G. Dong, Y. Yu, Y. Cui, M. Tong, L. Wang, Z. Zhou, H. Zhu, Q. Zhou, and J. Sha. 2014. Blastomere biopsy influences epigenetic reprogramming during early embryo development, which impacts neural development and function in resulting mice. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 71: 1761–1774.
Young, L.E., K.D. Sinclair, and I. Wilmut. 1998. Large offspring syndrome in cattle and sheep. Reviews of Reproduction 3: 155–163.
Young, L.E., K. Fernandes, T.G. McEvoy, S.C. Butterwith, C.G. Gutierrez, C. Carolan, P.J. Broadbent, J.J. Robinson, I. Wilmut, and K.D. Sinclair. 2001. Epigenetic change in IGF2R is associated with fetal overgrowth after sheep embryo culture. Nature Genetics 27: 153–154.
Yu, Y., J. Wu, Y. Fan, Z. Lv, X. Guo, C. Zhao, R. Zhou, Z. Zhang, F. Wang, M. Xiao, L. Chen, H. Zhu, W. Chen, M. Lin, J. Liu, Z. Zhou, L. Wang, R. Huo, Q. Zhou, and J. Sha. 2009. Evaluation of blastomere biopsy using a mouse model indicates the potential high risk of neurodegenerative disorders in the offspring. Molecular and Cellular Proteomics 8(7): 1490–1500.
Zhao, H.C., Y. Zhao, M. Li, J. Yan, L. Li, R. Li, P. Liu, Y. Yu, and J. Qiao. 2013. Aberrant epigenetic modification in murine brain tissues of offspring from preimplantation genetic diagnosis blastomere biopsies. Biology of Reproduction 89(5): 117.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Güell Pelayo, F. (2017). Parental Responsibility and the Principle of Procreative Beneficence in Light of Assisted Reproductive Technologies. In: Hens, K., Cutas, D., Horstkötter, D. (eds) Parental Responsibility in the Context of Neuroscience and Genetics. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 69. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42834-5_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42834-5_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-42832-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-42834-5
eBook Packages: Religion and PhilosophyPhilosophy and Religion (R0)