Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Water Policy and Governance in Canada pp 395–416Cite as

Agricultural and Water in Canada – Challenges and Reform for the 21 C

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Global Issues in Water Policy ((GLOB,volume 17))

Abstract

Agriculture is the dominant water use in Canada and the main contributor to non-point source pollution in agricultural watersheds contributing to toxic algal blooms in some of Canada’s and the world’s largest freshwater lakes. Water governance in Canada is fragmented, with water resources managed separately from land uses that contribute to water challenges. The performance of agri-environmental policies encouraging the adoption of beneficial management practices is also mixed. Efficient and effective farm level water management strategies will increase in importance over the next century as climate change and increasing demands for food put pressure on water quality and quantity. This chapter examines farm level decisions that affect water quality and quantity, and the factors that contribute to adoptability of beneficial practices. Decentralized and fragmented governance contributes to weak institutions for integrating water and agricultural land management resulting in poor monitoring and governance gaps at scales required to manage nutrient loads into major freshwater lakes as well emerging threats from unregulated pollutants. The potential for water quality trading to address risks from non-point source pollution is examined, along with opportunities for reform in Canada.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC). (2013). We grow a lot more than you may think. Minister of Agriculture and Agri-Food. http://www.agr.gc.ca/resources/prod/doc/info/pdf/aafc-aac_brochure_mar2013_eng.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development (AARD). (2014). Nutrient beneficial management practices evaluation project: Volume 2 – Field study. Lethbridge: Alberta Agriculture and Rural Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amy, S. P., Trenholm, R., & Haider, W. (2012). Socio-economic and environmental assessment of beneficial management practices. Report for the Sustainable Agriculture Management Branch, BC Ministry of Agriculture (AGRI).

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, J. G., Moriasi, D. N., Gassman, P. W., et al. (2012). SWAT: Model use, calibration, and validation. Transactions of the ASABE, 55(4), 1491–1508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakker, K., & Cook, C. (2011). Water governance in Canada: Innovation in the context of jurisdictional fragmentation. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 27(2), 275–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumgart-Getz, A., Prokopy, L. S., & Floress, K. (2012). Why farmers adopt best management practice in the United States: A meta-analysis of the adoption literature. Journal of Environmental Management, 96(1), 17–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, A. J., Matzke, A., & Uselman, S. (1999). Survey of livestock influences on stream and riparian ecosystems in the western United States. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 54(1), 419–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, D. R., Harms, T. E., & Entz, T. (2014). Net irrigation water requirements for major irrigated crops with variation in evaporative demand and precipitation in southern Alberta. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 39(1), 63–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boxall, P. C., Perger, O., & Weber, M. (2013). Reverse auctions for agri-environmental improvements: Bid-selection rules and pricing for beneficial management practice adoption. Canadian Public Policy, 39(Supplement 2), S23–S36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cantin, B. (2006). Can water quality trading help to address agricultural sources of pollution in Canada? Project Report (Policy Research Initiative project: Sustainable development). Ottawa: Policy Research Initiative.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, J. (2014, September 4). Farming contributes to Lake Erie algal bloom. The Western Producer. http://www.producer.com/2014/09/farming-contributes-to-lake-erie-algal-bloom/. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Claassen, R., Cattaneo, A., & Johansson, R. (2008). Cost-effective design of agri-environmental payment programs: U.S. experience in theory and practice. Ecological Economics, 65, 737–752.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A., & Bakker, K. (2010). Groundwater governance: Explaining regulatory non-compliance. International Journal of Water, 5(3), 246–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conference Board of Canada. (2015). How Canada performs: A report card on Canada. http://www.conferenceboard.ca/hcp/default.aspx. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Corkal, D. R, Inch, B., & Adkins, P. E. (2007). The case of Canada – Institutions and water in the South Saskatchewan River Basin. Working paper for Institutional Adaptations to Climate Change. http://www.parc.ca/mcri/pdfs/CaseofCanada-PFRA_FINAL_REV_0702 07.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Cortus, B. G., Jeffrey, S. R., Unterschultz, J. R., & Boxall, P. C. (2011). The economics of wetland drainage and retention in Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 59(1), 109–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Council of Canadian Academies (CCA). (2013). Water and agriculture in Canada: Towards sustainable management of water resources. Ottawa: The Expert Panel on Sustainable Management of Water in the Agricultural Landscapes of Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, G., Bakker, K., & Harris, L. (2014). Drinking water quality guidelines across Canadian Provinces and Territories: Jurisdictional variation in the context of decentralized water governance. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11, 4634–4651.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, G., Harris, L., & Bakker, K. (2015). Microbial risk governance: Challenges and opportunities in fresh water management in Canada. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 40(3), 237–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). (2014). Ohio River Basin water quality trading project. http://wqt.epri.com/pdf/3002001739_WQT-Program-Summary_2014-03.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Elliott, J., Deryng, D., Müller, C., Frieler, K., et al. (2014). Constraints and potentials of future irrigation water availability on agricultural production under climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(9), 3239–3244.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada. (1991). The federal policy on wetland conservation. Ottawa: Government of Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Environment Canada. (2013). Planning for a sustainable future: A federal sustainable development strategy for Canada 2013–2016. Sustainable Development Office. https://www.ec.gc.ca/dd-sd/F93CD795-0035-4DAF-86D1-53099BD303F9/FSDS_v4_EN.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Filson, G., Sethuratnam, S., Adekunle, B., & Lamba, P. (2009). Beneficial management practice adoption in five Southern Ontario watersheds. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 33(2), 229–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowke, V. C. (1957). The national policy and the wheat economy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghazalian, P. L., Larue, B., & West, G. E. (2009). Best management practices to enhance water quality: Who is adopting them? Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 3, 663–682.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, J. H., Naylor, R. L., Vitousek, P., et al. (2006). Business strategies for conservation on private lands: Koa forestry as a case study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(26), 10140–10145.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goucher, N., & Maas, T. (2014). Clean, not green: Tackling algal blooms in the Great Lakes. Toronto: Environmental Defence and Freshwater Future Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadrich, J. C. (2012). A survey of the awareness and use of BMPs on North Dakota beef operations (Agribusiness and applied economics report no. 698). Fargo: North Dakota State University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hajkowicz, S., Collins, K., & Cattaneo, A. (2009). Review of agri-environment indexes and stewardship payments. Environmental Management, 43(2), 221–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harker, B., Lebedin, J., Goss, M. J., Madramootoo, C., et al. (2004). Land-use practices and changes – Agriculture. In Environment Canada. Threats to water availability in Canada (NWRI scientific assessment report series no. 3 and ACSD science assessment series no. 1). Burlington: National Water Research Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeffrey, S. R., Koeckhoven, S., Trautman, D., et al. (2014). Economics of riparian beneficial management practices for improved water quality: A representative farm analysis in the Canadian Prairie region. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 39(4), 449–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kehrig, R. (2002). Agricultural practices and water quality in Saskatchewan: The social ecology of resource management. Master thesis, University of Saskatchewan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. A, Gillespie, J. M., & Paudel, K. P. (2004, February 18) The effect of economic factors on the adoption of best management practices in beef cattle production. Paper presented at Southern Agricultural Economics Association Annual meeting, Tulsa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klimas, M., & Weersink, A. (2006). The agricultural policy framework: Water effects. Horizons, Policy Research Initiative, Government of Canada, 9(1), 1525–1532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kutz, A. M., Clark, C. D., & Lambert, D. M. (2014, February 1–4). Willingness to adopt best management practice bundles by beef cattle operations in an East Tennessee watershed. Paper presented at Southern Agricultural Economics Association Annual meeting, Dallas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Latacz-Lohmann, U., & Van der Hamsvoort, C. (1998). Auctions as a means of creating a market for public goods from agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 49(3), 334–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lennox, G. D., & Armsworth, P. R. (2011). Suitability of short or long conservation contracts under ecological and socio-economic uncertainty. Ecological Modelling, 222(15), 2856–2866.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lobb, D. A., Huffman, E., & Reicosky, D. C. (2007). Importance of information on tillage practices in the modelling of environmental processes and in the use of environmental indicators. Journal of Environmental Management, 82(3), 377–387.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, P. D. (2005). Nutrient best management practice insurance and farmer perceptions of adaptation risk. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 36(3), 657–673.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morin, A., & Cantin, B. (2009). Strengthening integrated water resource management in Canada. Ottawa: Policy Research Initiative.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakamoto, R. J., & Hassler, T. J. (1992). Selenium and other trace elements in bluegills from agricultural return flows in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 22(1), 88–98.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nicol, L., Bjornlund, H., & Klein, K. K. (2010). Private irrigators in Southern Alberta: A survey of their adoption of improved irrigation technologies and management practices. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 35(3), 339–350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nowlan, L., & Bakker, K. (2007). Delegating water governance: Issues and challenges in the BC context. Vancouver: Program on Water Governance, University of British Columbia.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Grady, D. (2011). Socio-political conditions for successful water quality trading in the South River Nation watershed, Ontario, Canada. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 47, 39–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, J. S., Moore, R., & Weaver, M. (2007). land tenure as a variable in community based watershed projects: Some lessons from the Sugar Creek Watershed, Wayne and Holmes Counties, Ohio. Society and Natural Resources, 20(9), 815–833.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paudel, K. P., Gauthier, W. M., Westra, J. V., & Hall, L. M. (2008). Factors influencing and steps leading to the adoption of best management practices by Louisiana dairy farmers. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 1(April), 203–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pomeroy, J. W., Fang, X., Westbrook, C., Minke, A., Guo, X., & Brown, T. (2010). Prairie hydrological model study: Final report (Center for hydrology report no. 7). Saskatoon: Centre for Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahbeh, M., Chanasyk, D. S., & Patterson, S. J. (2013). Modeling the irrigation requirements for an experimental site in Northern Alberta, Canada. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 38(4), 280–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rao, N. S., Easton, Z. M., Schneiderman, E. M., et al. (2009). Modeling watershed-scale effectiveness of agricultural best management practices to reduce phosphorus loading. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, 1385–1395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ribaudo, M. O., Heimlich, R., Claassen, R., & Peters, M. (2001). Least-cost management of nonpoint source pollution: Source reduction versus interception strategies for controlling nitrogen loss in the Mississippi Basin. Ecological Economics, 37(2), 183–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ribaudo, M., Greene, C., Hansen, L., & Hellerstein, D. (2010). Ecosystem services from agriculture: Steps for expanding markets. Ecological Economics, 69, 2085–2092.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rolfe, J., Windle, J., & McCosker, J. (2009). Testing and implementing the use of multiple bidding rounds in conservation auctions: A case study application. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 57(3), 287–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, D., Oborne, B., & Venema, H. D. (2009). Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Canada. Recommendations for agricultural sector participation. Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubec, C. D. A., & Hanson, A. R. (2009). Wetland mitigation and compensation: Canadian experience. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 17, 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selman, M., Greenhalgh, S., Branosky, E. et al. (2009). Water quality trading programs: An international overview. World Resources Institute, Issue Brief 1, 1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shortle, J. (2013). Economics and environmental markets: Lessons from water-quality trading. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 42, 57–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shortle, J. S., & Horan, R. D. (2008). The economics of water quality trading. International Review of Environmental and Resource Economics, 2(2), 101–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skaggs, R., & Youssef, M. A. (2009). Modern drainage water management to reduce drainage volumes and nitrogen losses. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID). ICID Newsletter (4). http://www.icid.org/drg_article_2009_4.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Sparling, B., & Brethour, C. (2007). An economic evaluation of beneficial management practices for crop nutrients in Canadian agriculture. Paper presented at the Canadian Agricultural Economics Society Annual Meeting, Portland, 29 July–1 August.

    Google Scholar 

  • Statistics Canada. (2013). Farm environmental management survey. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/21-023-x/21-023-x2013001-eng.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Statistics Canada. (2014). Human activity and the environment. Agriculture in Canada. Catalogue no 16-201-X. Environment, Energy and Transportation Statistics Division, Minister of Industry. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/16-201-x/16-201-x2014000-eng.pdf. Accessed 14 Jan 2016.

  • Sunohara, M. D., Craiovan, E., Topp, E., et al. (2014). Comprehensive nitrogen budgets for controlled tile drainage fields in eastern Ontario, Canada. Journal of Environmental Quality, 43(2), 617–630.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tamini, L. D., Larue, B., & West, G. (2012). Technical and environmental efficiencies and best management practices in agriculture. Applied Economics, 44(13), 1659–1672.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, K., & Wu, J. (2004). Evaluating the effect of conservation policies on agricultural land use: A site-specific modeling approach. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 52(3), 217–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valentin, L., Bernardo, D. J., & Kastens, T. L. (2004). Testing the empirical relationship between best management practice adoption and farm profitability. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 26(4), 489–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Winkle, A., & Hadrich, J. (2011, July 24–26). North Dakota beef cow producers: Identifying current management practices and factors that influence adoption rates of best management practices relating to surface water pollution. Paper presented at the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association’s AAEA and NAREA Joint Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vercammen, J. (2011). Agri-environmental regulations, policies, and programs. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 59, 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Voora, V., McCandless, M., Roy, D., Venema, H. D., Oborne, B., & Grosshans, R. (2009). Water quality trading in the Lake Winnipeg Basin. Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Klein, K. K., Bjornlund, H., et al. (2015). Adoption of improved irrigation scheduling methods in Alberta: An empirical analysis. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 40(1), 47–61.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, M., & Cutlac, M. (2014). Economic and environmental trade-offs from alternative water allocation policies in the South Saskatchewan River Basin. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 39(4), 409–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westbrook, C. J., Bruner, N., Phillips, I., & Davies, J.-M. (2011). Wetland drainage effects on Prairie water quality: Final report (Centre for hydrology report no. 9). Saskatoon: Centre for Hydrology, University of Saskatchewan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worrall, F., Evans, M. G., Bonn, A., et al. (2009). Can carbon offsetting pay for upland ecological restoration? Science of the Total Environment, 408, 26–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., & Babcock, B. A. (1995). Optimal design of a voluntary green payment program. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 20, 316–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, W. (2016). Geomatics & water policy. In S. Renzetti & D. Dupont (Eds.), Water policy and governance. Cham: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, W., & Weersink, A. (2004). Cost-effective targeting of riparian buffers. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 52(1), 17–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, W., Wang, X., Liu, Y., et al. (2010). Simulated environmental effects of wetland restoration scenarios in a typical Canadian prairie watershed. Wetlands Ecology Management, 18, 269–279.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Alberta Innovates Technology Futures, 250 Karl Clark Road, T6N 1E4, Edmonton, AB, Canada

    Marian Weber & Marius Cutlac

Authors
  1. Marian Weber
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marius Cutlac
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marian Weber .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economics and Environmental Sustainability Research Centre, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada

    Steven Renzetti

  2. Department of Economics and Environmental Sustainability Research Centre, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada

    Diane P. Dupont

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Weber, M., Cutlac, M. (2017). Agricultural and Water in Canada – Challenges and Reform for the 21 C. In: Renzetti, S., Dupont, D. (eds) Water Policy and Governance in Canada. Global Issues in Water Policy, vol 17. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42806-2_21

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation