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Time and Space: Connecting the Parts

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The Burial Record of Prehistoric Liangshan in Southwest China

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Abstract

Following the model developed in Chap. 2, after the separate analysis of grave construction, body (treatment), and object assemblages, in the present chapter the spatial and temporal connections between these three elements are explored. As to the spatial aspect, in a first step, this chapter reconstructs the sequence of events surrounding the construction and use of the grave; second, site placement in relation to geomorphological preconditions and preexisting sites is assessed through spatial analysis; third, on the macro-level, the placement of single graves in the landscape and the cemetery is discussed. Grave forms, associated ritual acts, location choice, and object production and usage are then connected to identify regional and subregional differences. It becomes clear that the five main geographic subregions identified in Chap. 3 largely coincide with culture-geographic subregions; however, there are subregional differences and many changes over time. Based on a combination of stratigraphic evidence, object typology and inter- and intraregional comparison, as well as radiocarbon dates, this chapter then develops a chronological sequence for the whole Liangshan Region. Considering the lack of radiocarbon dates and the small number of deeply stratified sites, this chronological framework is necessarily tentative but it provides a much-needed basis for future research and discussions on the topic.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Five of these sites are located in Huili , three in Mianning , one in Xichang , three in Yanbian , one in Yuexi , 14 in Yanyuan, and 15 in Zhaojue . The graves in Zhaojue are all stone-construction graves protruding at the surface; however, they are heavily disturbed and the covering stones of other graves might have been carried away, leaving only a single grave for archaeologists to discover.

  2. 2.

    Dechang Hejiashan, Malilang Zhanbei, and Zhangjiaba , for example, are all within about 0.5 km radius of each other, so are many other sites. This also applies to Dechang Nahuagong and Shaba, Dechang Huangjiaba and Liangshanpo, Dechang Shaorenba and Ganhai, Dechang Dashipai and Wujia, Dechang Maliang and Zhangjiaba, Xichang Dabaozi and Luzuishan, Xichang Reshuitang West, Shangjiaxiang, Shizuizi, and Xixicun, Xichang Beishan and Zhengjiafen.

  3. 3.

    Huili Xiaotuanshan , Fenjiwan , and Yunshan are located with in a radius of less than 1 km; Huili Hedongtian, Washitian , and Yingpanshan are located at only 1 km distance to each other, albeit on different sides of the river, so are Huili Yingpanshan and Houzidong , and the majority of grave sites in Yanyuan. Megalithic and earth-pit graves only rarely occur close to each other; some of the few examples are Xichang Qimugou and Lijiacun, Xichang Maliucun and Yingpanshan , and Puge Wadaluo and Xiaoxingchang , which are less than 1 km apart from each other.

  4. 4.

    The majority of earth-pit graves was devoid of bone remains due to unfavorable preservation conditions, making it impossible to pronounce on forms of body treatment . Of the few earth-pit and stone-construction graves that did contain human remains, the majority are single interments, many of them primary. Human remains were only found in the graves at Yongsheng Duizi , which remain unpublished, Mianning Xiaogoudi, Yanyuan Laolongtou , Huili Washitian , and very few graves at Huili Fenjiwan and Laolongtou , as well as stone-construction graves at Huili Xiaoyingpan , Luquan Yingpanbao, and a very few graves in Zhaojue and Mianning.

  5. 5.

    Yongsheng Duizi and Mianning Xiaogoudi (urn-burials in earth pits); Puge Xiaoxingchang AM1 and Xichang Xijiao Gongshe M1 (in megalithic graves together with inhumations), Yanyuan Laolongtou M9 (with three primary inhumations ).

  6. 6.

    The only known cases are Xichang Xiaoxingchang M1 and Puge Xiaoxingchang M1.

  7. 7.

    Such clear signs of an actual reentering and not just reopening have only been observed with large megalithic graves in the Xichang area as well as Puge and Xide .

  8. 8.

    Evidence for burning of unknown substances is known from a very few graves of all types in the Anning River Valley (Xichang, Dechang , and Miyi ) and in Luquan in the Southeast . Ash piles that might be the outcome of fire (be it inside the grave or elsewhere) are known from earth-pit graves in the central Anning River Valley and stone-construction graves in the Northeast ; charcoal remains have been found in the Northwest (Yanyuan Laolongtou M4 and M7) and in various megalithic graves in the Anning River Valley.

  9. 9.

    For further discussions of subsistence practices in Southwest Sichuan consult Hein (forthcoming).

  10. 10.

    Such graves were found at Huili Washitian and Xiaoyingpan ; Ninglang Daxingzhen , Yanyuan Laolongtou , and Yongsheng Duizi .

  11. 11.

    These are graves at Huili Xiaoyingpan , Xichang Qimugou and Ma’anshan , Yanyuan Laolongtou , and Yongsheng Duizi .

  12. 12.

    These are the graves at Dechang Arong , Mianning Wanqiu , Xichang Dayangdui , Hexi Gongshe , Huangshuitang, Wanao , and Xiaohuashan .

  13. 13.

    The fine ware from megalithic graves is either red or black-brown in color and only sparingly decorated with bundles of lines or fish-bone pattern. Graves with this kind of assemblages were found at Puge Xiaoxingchang , Xichang Bahe Baozi , Guanshan, Tianwangshan , Xijiao Gongshe , Yanjiashan , Yuanjiashan , Xide Guluqiao , and Lake Sihe .

  14. 14.

    Leaf-vein impressed vessels have been found throughout most of the research area as well as in Northwest Sichuan, e.g., in Sichuan Shimian (Sichuansheng Wenguanhui 1996; Sichuansheng et al. 2006), and Northern Yunnan , e.g., in Yunnan Midu (Yunnansheng Bowuguan 1986).

  15. 15.

    These sites include, e.g., Yuanmou Dadunzi (Yunnansheng Bowuguan 1977), Yongren Caiyuanzi (Yunnansheng Bowuguan 1985) and Mopandi (Yunnansheng Wenwu et al. 2003), and Jianchuan Haimenkou (Yunnansheng et al. 2009a; 2009b).

  16. 16.

    It has been suggested that the ceramic material might be connected to finds from Maoxian Baishuizhai in the Upper Min River Valley (Sichuansheng et al. 2009: 21; Chengdu et al. 2008), but the similarities are not very pronounced and the distance between the sites is considerable. At the current juncture, this hypothesis therefore seems unlikely.

  17. 17.

    Examples can be found throughout the mountainous parts of northwest and southwest Sichuan and northern Yunnan (Aba and Chengdu 2009).

  18. 18.

    For further discussions on the settlement material of the research area and its analysis and interpretation, consult Hein (forthcoming).

  19. 19.

    For a detailed discussion of these connections consult Hein 2014a.

  20. 20.

    The stemmed dou bowls appearing from Duizi Layer 3 onward both among settlement remains and in earth-pit graves, for instance, strongly resemble finds from Kunming Yangfutou (Yunnansheng et al. 2005) and other cemeteries around lake Dian.

  21. 21.

    For comparanda from other parts of Yunnan consult the finds from Yongping Xinguang (Yunnansheng et al. 2002) or Yuanmou Dadunzi (Yunnansheng Bowuguan 1977).

  22. 22.

    These sites are Dechang Wangjipaing, Mianning Gaopo and Zhaojiawan, Puge Xiaoxingchang , and Xichang Henglanshan.

  23. 23.

    The most important sites with thick cultural deposits consisting of several layers are Xichang Dayangdui, Yingpanshan , Ma’anshan , and Mianning Sanfentun. Several cultural phases have also been observed at Xichang Henglanshan, Lizhou , Mimilang , Qimugou , and Yongsheng Duizi .

  24. 24.

    See, for example, Xu Xueshu (1999), Yang Fan (2002), Fan Yong (2007), and Zhou Zhiqing (2009). In her article on “Recent Developments in the Archaeology of Southwestern China,” Alice Yao (2010) provides a very useful overview on the state of research for Yunnan, but Sichuan does hardly feature and the Liangshan region is not mentioned at all.

  25. 25.

    Consult Hein 2015 for a detailed description of the settlement sites and their material.

  26. 26.

    Here and in the following, the dates were calibrated using OxCal online radiocarbon calibration using IntCal13 with an error range of 2σ (https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcalhelp/hlp_curves.html).

  27. 27.

    Consult Chap. 1 in the present volume for an explanation of Henglanshan as a phase and culture.

  28. 28.

    Two radiocarbon dates were taken from Mimilang, one from layer 5 (50–140 AD) and one from layer 4 (1050–920 BC), but as the date from layer 4 is earlier than the one from layer 5 instead of the other way around, and the dates rely on only one charcoal sample each (Jiang 2007: 10), this late date is likely faulty.

  29. 29.

    These dates are based on two dates with wide error ranges, 1217 ± 121 cal. BC and 1347 ± 130 cal. BC, but as they fit very well with the dates suggested by the considerably more reliable dates from Jigongshan, a date around 1300–900 cal. BC is highly likely.

  30. 30.

    The radiocarbon dates for Gaopo are 1379 ± 39 cal. BC for Layer 1, 1316 ± 47 cal. BC for Layer 2, and 1179 ± 47 cal. BC for Layer 3. The dates for Zhaojiawan are 1316 ± 47 cal. BC for Layer 2 and 972 ± 53 cal. BC for Layer 3 (Chengdushi et al. 2012).

  31. 31.

    Based on the lack of metal objects in the early graves and comparison with ceramics from Chengdu Shi’erqiao, Luo Kaiyu (1989) suggests a Shang date (c. 1600–1046 BC), but as the resemblances are vague and early Dayangdui, which predates the megalithic graves, contains a bronze sword/knife , this date is probably too early. Based on the radiocarbon dates of Puge Xiaoxingchang , Liu Hong (2009) has suggested a late Spring and Autumn date (fifth c. BC) which considering the stratigraphic and typological evidence from Dayangdui seems a little late.

  32. 32.

    Iron knives were found at Dechang Arong M3; Xichang Guoyuancun M1; Xichang Hexi Gongshe M2, M4, and M5; Huangshuitang M1; Wanao M1; and Xiaohuashan M1, and an iron sword was found at Xijiao Gongshe M1. Dechang Arong M4 furthermore contained a few iron nails.

  33. 33.

    These graves are Xide Guluqiao M1, Lake Sihe M1, and Xichang Hexi Gongshe M3.

  34. 34.

    For a detailed analysis of the settlement material from the Liangshan Region consult Hein 2015.

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    Anke Hein

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Hein, A. (2017). Time and Space: Connecting the Parts. In: The Burial Record of Prehistoric Liangshan in Southwest China. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42384-5_7

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