Abstract
Welfare state has performed an extremely important function in the economic and social system of the Nordic states. Due to the emergence of new conditions and determinants (e.g. ageing of the society, globalization, growing number of people on welfare, declining number of working people), there is a need of introducing reforms in various aspects of the concept itself and its practice. The reforms of welfare state in Scandinavian countries, however, are not a departure from its fundamental principles but an adaptation to new conditions and challenges.
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Notes
- 1.
See: U. Lundberg, Tankar om den nordiska modellen.
- 2.
See: A. Kowol, Wariant szwedzki „ekonomii dobrobytu”. Teoria i praktyka. http://www.geocities.com/akowol
- 3.
Prof. W. Anioł from Warsaw University identifies four models: continental (corporate, conservative; found in France, Germany, and Belgium), Anglo-Saxon (Great Britain and Ireland), Nordic (social-democratic; Sweden, Finland, Norway and Denmark), and Mediterranean; see: W. Anioł, Gdy na wszystko brakuje.
- 4.
The origin and development of the Scandinavian welfare state model was decisively influenced by the theories of economists from the Swedish school of thought (Stockholm School – stockholmsskolan). Its main founder was G. Wicksell and his followers included G. K. Casell, D. Davidson, D. Hammarskjöld, R. Frish, E. Heckscher, E. R. Lindahl, E.F. Lundberg, B. E. Ohlin, and G. K. Myrdal. The listed group is attributed with the pioneering role in establishing many principles on business cycles and the policy of active fiscal and monetary stimuli anticipating so-called Keynesian revolution. These economists exerted enormous influence on the policy of the Swedish Government starting in 1932; see: T. Kowalik, Współczesne systemy ekonomiczne. Powstanie, ewolucja, kryzy, p. 84.
- 5.
The idea of the state as “the people’s home” was for the first time formulated in 1928 by P. A. Hansson who in his speech called Sweden the folkhemmet. The Swedish state was compared to a big family in which there is equality and co-responsibility for the other members of society, and the state is a guardian of every citizen irrespective of origin or social status. See: U. Claesson, Folkhemmets kyrka, p. 35.
- 6.
Quantitative research on the impact of social democratic reforms can be found in: K. Loxbo, Bakom socialdemokraternas beslut: En studie av den politiska förändringens dilemman: från 1950-talets ATP-strid till 1990-talets pensionsuppgörelse; E. Vedung, Unionsdebatten 1905: En jämförelse mellan argumenteringen i Sverige och Norge.
- 7.
The Social Democratic Party came to power in 1932 and kept it continuously for several decades, which also contributed to the development of the Nordic model; more on the subject in: J. Norberg, Swedish Models: The Welfare State and its Competitors.
- 8.
Some researchers claim that since the regime changes over time, there is not a single Nordic model but several Nordic models; see: M. Kautto, J. Fritzell, B. Hvinden, J. Kvist, H. Uusitalo, How distinct are the Nordic welfare states? p. 4.
- 9.
See: T. S. Edvardsen, B. Hagtvet, Państwo dobrobytu i jego instytucje.
- 10.
The described elements are mentioned in extensive literature on the origins of the Scandinavian welfare state model.
- 11.
It was a result of several processes. Firstly, the average life expectancy almost doubled. In the 1970s, the average Englishman and Swede lived to be 47 while a Frenchman only 42. In 1990s, the average life expectancy was for France 78.5, England – 77.4, and Sweden – 79.5. Secondly, the rate of natural increase had fallen fast. In the 1970s, it stood in Germany and Sweden at 12 per mille; England – 14 per mille; Italy – 9 per mille. In 2000, Germans, Swedes and Italians had negative natural growth (respectively, minus 1.2, minus 0.6, and minus 0.9 per mille), and the English only 1.3 per mille. And thirdly, the changes mentioned above have caused the inability of funding pension insurance by the young work force. More on the subject in: W. Gadomski, Wzlot i upadek państwa dobrobytu, November 08, 2003, http://info.wyborcza.pl/temat/wyborcza/wzlot+i+upadek+pa%C5%84stwa+dobrobytu
- 12.
Among others, M. Hoydal, Fem velferdsstater i en global verden (ca 1920 till i dag), Nordisk Råd 2013, www.norden.org; J. Loughlin, F. Hendriks, A. Lindström, The Oxford handbook of local and regional democracy in Europe, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011; A. Åslund,, Hälften så dyrt, dubbelt så bra. Förbättra Sverige genom att halvera de offentliga utgifterna, andra utgavan, Timbro, Stockholm 2010; U. Kristersson, Trygghet och välfärd i en ny ekonomi, Timbro, Stockholm 2010.
- 13.
See: J. Pawlicki, Szwedzki dom ludu w renowacji.
- 14.
More on the subject in: J. Rifkin, Koniec pracy: schyłek siły roboczej na świecie i początek ery postrynkowej.
- 15.
More on the website of the World Values Survey: http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/; R. Inglehart, Globalization and Postmodern Values, pp. 215–228.
- 16.
2011, no data for 2012.
- 17.
Data for 2012. Gross Domestic Expenditure on Research & Development, Eurostat, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/File:Gross_domestic_expenditure_on_R%26D,_2002%E2%80%9312_(%25_of_GDP)_YB14.png
- 18.
More at: Flexicurity – dobra praca dla większej liczby ludzi, Komunikat Komisji Europejskiej, June 27, 2007, http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/news/2007/jun/flexicurity_en.pdf.
- 19.
This kind of solutions was economically “unfriendly” since companies did not have the flexibility to adjust employment according to the needs, thus becoming less competitive. So they were reluctant to hire employees unless there were long-term work prospects. Such a situation forced unemployment and state assistance for unemployed workers.
- 20.
The cultural norm expressed by the term lågom is also found in Norway.
- 21.
The Swedish term jämlikhet denoting social equality has its equivalents in other countries of the Nordic region, i.e. janteloven in Denmark and Norway, janten laki in Finland and jantulóginna in the Faroe Islands.
- 22.
This is a reference to the universal model of social policy granting social rights to all citizens regardless of their economic status, employment and own contributions, high levels of redistribution, mandatory social insurance for all citizens, financing universal benefits and services from public funds (taxes), high social status and the value of work.
- 23.
For example, healthcare, education, the policies of labor market, and the system of social security.
- 24.
For the Scandinavian countries, these are mainly telemedicine, telecommunication, modern technologies of oil and gas extraction (for Norway), and environment protection technologies.
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Czarny, R.M. (2017). Problems and Challenges of the Nordic “Welfare States”. In: A Modern Nordic Saga : Politics, Economy and Society. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42363-0_4
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