Abstract
The use of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has existed for thousands of years and is deeply rooted in Chinese society. In the context of Chinese migration and growing markets from the West, the TCM market has developed into a lucrative drug industry. However, not all medicines are legal, some illegal medicines contain sinister components, such as tiger bone, rhino horn, pangolin scales or saiga antelope horn. This chapter focuses on the social organization of the criminal groups that are involved in the illegal trade in TCM. Social ties play a fundamental role in trade, in particularly as the guanxi practice provides an effective insider–outsider system to protect entrepreneurs in the illegal business. Relationships with migrant Chinese abroad are important for a secure and familiar business and established trade routes. The harmful consequences of the activities of these criminal networks can be widely seen with several species on the brink of extinction.
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Notes
- 1.
Parts of this chapter have been published in the article: Van Uhm, D.P. (2014). Criminaliteit en traditionele Chinese medicijnen. Proces, 93 (2): 130–143.
- 2.
As a result many species used in TCM declined, including the loss of 3,000 tigers (Jackson et al. 1996).
- 3.
This means that under special procedures the trade is possible, see Chap. 3.
- 4.
Article 9 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife.
- 5.
Article 16 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife.
- 6.
Article 22 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife.
- 7.
Article 22 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife.
- 8.
Article 22 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife.
- 9.
Article 22 Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife: Units and individuals that domesticate and breed wildlife under special state protection may, by presenting their domestication and breeding licences, sell wildlife under special state protection or the products thereof, in accordance with the relevant regulations, to purchasing units designated by the government.
- 10.
Article 11.2 Circular of the State Council on Banning the Trade of Rhinoceros Horn and Tiger Bone.
- 11.
Article 11.3 Circular of the State Council on Banning the Trade of Rhinoceros Horn and Tiger Bone.
- 12.
Article 11.1 Circular of the State Council on Banning the Trade of Rhinoceros Horn and Tiger Bone.
- 13.
Article 11 Circular of the State Council on Banning the Trade of Rhinoceros Horn and Tiger Bone.
- 14.
Other endangered animal species used in TCM include musk from musk deer that is widely used in 400 patent medicines as a sedative for various ailments (Meng et al. 2011) or bear bile from bears that is used in more than 74 drugs—over 10,000 bears are kept in farms in China for bile (Sheng et al. 2012) or seahorses intended as a remedy for kidney disease, circulatory problems and impotence.
- 15.
A consumer of tiger bone wine in Guangzhou explained that it is quite popular among adolescents to order tiger bones from a dealer and to make wine from them. “We buy, with my rich friends, the tiger bones. (…) If someone wants to buy this they have to find the people in the middle. My friend has got connections and uses this network to buy the bones and we make the tiger bone wine” (CS6).
- 16.
During the 1930s the Bali tiger (Panthera tigris balica) became extinct, during the 1970s the Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgate) while the Javan tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica) became extinct in the 1980s (Abbott and Kooten 2011).
- 17.
The total population of Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) is estimated at <2,500 tigers (2,376), the Indo-Chinese tiger population (Panthera tigris corbetti) is estimated to be 352 animals (Thailand: 200, Myanmar: 85, Vietnam: 20, Cambodia: 20, Laos: 17) and the Siberian tiger population (Panthera tigris altaica) is estimated to be 360 tigers (Miquelle et al. 2011). The number of Malayan tigers (Panthera tigris jacksoni) is less than 250 animals, the South China Tiger population (Panthera tigris amoyensis) decreased from over 4,000 in the 1950s to perhaps now being extinct and the Sumatran tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) has an estimated population of 176–271 animals in the wild (Goodrich et al. 2015).
- 18.
Leopard bone is the closest substitute for tiger bone; however, more leopard bone is needed to attain the same effect (Moyle 2009).
- 19.
- 20.
Already in the 1970s the volume of African rhino horn was higher and its price was lower than that for Asian rhino horns (Leader-Williams 1992).
- 21.
There is no scientific evidence of any medicinal qualities for rhino horn. Rhino horn is composed of keratin, similar to human hair and fingernails (Ayling 2013).
- 22.
Although the White Rhino (Ceratotherium simum spp.) was on the brink of extinction with a remnant population of 20–50 left in 1895 in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, currently the White Rhino has the largest number of wild animals; an estimated 20,170 White Rhino in the wild in 2010 (Emslie 2012). The population of Black Rhino (Diceros bicornis ssp.) declined from 100,000 in 1960 to 2,410 by 1995. Since then, the population had increased to 4,880 in 2010, but this is still just a small part of the population of three generations ago (Milliken and Shaw 2012). Furthermore, the population of the Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) increased from 200 in the early 1900s to 2,575 in 2007 (Talukdar et al. 2008), the population of the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) declined until the 1990s with estimated losses of 50 % per decade (Foose and Van Strien 1997) and fewer than 275 individuals are estimated to remain in the wild (Van Strien et al. 2008a) and the Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) population is estimated to consist of between 40–60 animals in the wild (van Strien et al. 2008b).
- 23.
According to TCM doctors buffalo horn would also replace rhino horn. As much as 10 times the volume is needed .
- 24.
The numbers of the subspecies (Saiga tatarica tatarica) in Kazakhstan declined from 976,000 in 1993 to 21,000 in 2003 (Milner-Gulland et al. 2001) and the subspecies (Saiga tatarica mongolica) in Mongolia from 5,200 in 2000 to 2,000 in 2006 (CITES 2007). Since the 1970s the saiga population in China is thought to be extinct (Zhang et al. 2006; Von Meibom et al. 2010).
- 25.
The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) in China has declined by 89–94 % in comparison with the 1960s (Wu et al. 2004). Based on this substantial decline the Chinese pangolin is predicted to decline by up to 90 % over the next 21 years (Challender et al. 2014a); the Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) has declined by up to 80 % in the last 21 years and this decline is expected to continue over the coming years (Challender et al. 2014b). Based on the decrease in the Chinese pangolin and Sunda pangolin over the last decade, it is expected that at least the population of the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and the Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis) will drop by up to 50 % in the next 21 years due to the trade in traditional medicine (Baillie et al. 2014; Lagrada et al. 2014). Furthermore, the African populations of the Black-bellied Pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla), White-bellied Pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis), Giant Ground Pangolin (Smutsia gigantean) and the Temminck’s Ground Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) are suspected to decline by at least 30–40 % over the next 21–27 years (Waterman et al. 2014a, b, c; Pietersen et al. 2014).
- 26.
For instance, Western clients use TCM and acupuncture to stop smoking.
- 27.
Proto professionalization is a process whereby ordinary people start to acquire basic medicinal concepts to orient themselves under the influence of increasing medicalization.
- 28.
Between 1949–1976, 42 % of East Africa’s declared exports were transferred to Hong Kong (Leader-Williams 1992).
- 29.
Note that export statistics were widely underreported.
- 30.
Note the underrepresentation of declared imports (Leader-Williams 1992).
- 31.
In the early 1990s the tiger medicine industry in China would be 100 million CNY (USD 12.4 million). Before the ban the famous TCM company Tong Ren Tang used 2,000–3,000 kg of tiger bone each year for the production of tiger medicines. If the ban would be lifted the company would expect to use 1,000 kg of tiger bone annually (Nowell and Ling 2007).
- 32.
China exported over 27 million units (e.g. capsules and bottles) with tiger derivatives to 26 countries and territories between 1990 and 1992. Exports were allowed by CITES on the grounds that the tiger parts were from stocks before CITES came into force (Mills 1997).
- 33.
CITES Trade Database, 2015.
- 34.
Kathleen E. McLaughlin, “China’s dangerous appetite for rare animals,” Global Post, October 26, 2010.
- 35.
Seizures of plant products consist mainly of American ginseng Panax quinquefolius, but are not included in this study.
- 36.
The seizures are an underestimation because many confiscations are not recorded in the database.
- 37.
Russia and Ghana are remarkable countries regarding TCM. Based on the seizures, from Russia mainly medicines containing parts of bears and from Ghana medicines with parts of lions were confiscated.
- 38.
In line with this diaspora, Chinese culture has also influenced the use of TCM abroad (Swan and Conrad 2014).
- 39.
A study on the profiles of 55 poachers in Kruger National Park (South Africa) demonstrates that the group involved 40 % Mozambican citizens and 60 % South African citizens. All were male and in 41 % of cases their ages were between 20 and 29, 41 % were between 30 and 39 while 18 % were 40 or older (Eloff 2012).
- 40.
Sometimes even inexperienced youths enter national parks in South Africa to shoot a rhino in the prospect of making easy money: “When you go and kill a rhino everything you want is there. Money to do anything you could want. Money for food and drink. But when you poach you can get caught and beaten up [by the police] and you can end up in jail. And in jail you can get beaten too. I don't know but I am not happy, because these people [middlemen] make big money out of this. They make a lot of money and we don't get much. We get almost nothing out of poaching” (Hull 2012).
- 41.
As discussed further in this chapter there are several opportunities to trade illegally in bones from captive-bred tigers in China.
- 42.
For instance 0.375 and 0.458 rifles (Montesh 2013).
- 43.
These local communities believe that tigers have become used to the taste of human flesh due to upstream cremations of human bodies on the water (Sellar 2014).
- 44.
‘The tiger will kill again—it has tasted human flesh’, The Asian Times, February 20, 2014.
- 45.
Poachers of small wildlife would operate as individuals, on an ad hoc basis and sometimes based on requests from middlemen. One study indicates that the majority of poachers are adult men (women are involved in 20 % of cases and children in less than 10 %), working with small networks of family members or associates (UNODC 2013).
- 46.
Not only ethnic Chinese middlemen involved in source countries, but also those in destination countries are of importance. According to a Dutch law enforcement agency many people involved in the illegal TCM trade were Chinese residents and TCM products have been sold by Chinese medicine stores in the destination countries. Furthermore, there are indicators that these illegal TCM products are delivered by family members (Post 2013).
- 47.
This is because the vehicles are identified as being linked to Chinese aid projects in Laos (Yongge 2000).
- 48.
E.g. many shops in Wing Lok Street in Hong Kong sell saiga horns (personal observation, November 2013, Hong Kong).
- 49.
‘特大羚羊角走私案’, China Daily, June 23, 2013.
- 50.
For instance, a Vietnamese government official was arrested when smuggling two rhino horns, diamonds and large sums of cash. However, diplomatic immunity prevented him from being prosecuted (Milliken and Shaw 2012).
- 51.
In 22 cases, other violations of CITES occurred, including ‘illegal use for commercial purposes’ (N = 15), ‘illegally selling, offering for sale, keeping or transporting’ (N = 4) and ‘illegal possession’ (N = 3).
- 52.
Centuries later, a flourishing wildlife trade by primarily Chinese, intermarried with locals, was noted by a French explorer (Nooren and Claridge 2001: 17).
- 53.
Between 1976 and 1978 at least 29 tonnes of deer antlers, 6 tonnes of monkey bones, 1.5 tonnes of elephant bones, 7 tonnes of pangolin scales, 2 tonnes of tortoise shell, 2.6 tonnes of snake skins, tens of thousands of dried geckos and bones and skins from more than 50 tigers, leopards and bears were imported (Nooren and Claridge 2001).
- 54.
For example, Lao enterprises were developed by ethnic Chinese to export several wildlife products (ibid.).
- 55.
In several large cities in China (e.g. Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Beijing) fake rhino horns are also sold by minorities on the street. While real rhino horns are made of keratin (compacted hair), the fake horns are usually made of buffalo horn (Ammann 2011), or wood, plastic, fibreglass, stone or bamboo roots.
- 56.
A survey in China in 2008 found that 1.9 % of respondents had consumed TCM (including tonics) containing tiger products within the past 12 months. This would mean that around 25 million people in China still use the medicine (Graham-Rowe 2011).
- 57.
From 2007 onwards, one batch of 4,200 kg saiga horns was legally imported by China (CITES Trade Database 2015).
- 58.
Noteworthy is that despite the ban of tiger bone and rhino horn in TCM the Chinese government still suggested that captive breeding centres would be able to fuel the demand in the late 2000s. One proposal in 2007 was to use tiger products solely to TCM hospitals (Sellar 2014).
- 59.
Not only in the ‘tiger farm industry’, but in the ‘rhino farm industry’ in South Africa there is also a lobby for legalization. Moreover, it is probable that there are already farms in China that use their horns in TCM as a treatment for cancer (Cota-Larson 2013).
- 60.
The use of lion bones in TCM is legal with certificates from the China State Forestry Administration (SFA) (EIA 2013).
- 61.
In the 1990s, at least 400 pangolins were smuggled from Vietnam into China each week (Compton and Le Hai Quang 1998).
- 62.
Networks of poachers are located in Nukus, Kungrad, Khojeili and Tashkent in Uzbekistan (Von Meibom et al. 2010).
- 63.
‘Sex workers used to ‘hunt’ rhino’, News 24, July 22, 2011.
- 64.
In addition, the sale of two rhino horns by a trader to a federal agent for $55,000 in a hotel in Las Vegas on March 19, 2014, indicates a connection with the Medellin drug cartel, as the same trader was involved in the illegal trade in cocaine from the Medellin drug cartel to the United States. “Operation Crash has documented how individuals involved in other non wildlife-related crimes have branched out into wildlife crimes”, says US Fish and Wildlife’s officer (Christy 2014).
- 65.
Another example is the involvement of the Groenewald syndicate in the illegal rhino horn business. For over 4 years the Groenewald syndicate is alleged to have kept rhinos for conservation purposes, while actually the real purpose was the dehorning and killing of rhinos to make profits from the sale of their horns. The case is one of the most serious cases regarding rhinos with 1,872 charges of racketeering, illegal hunting, dealing in rhino horns, and fraud and money laundering (Rademeyer 2012; Ayling 2013). Due to the involvement of professional hunters and game farmers predominantly with an Afrikaans membership, these groups have been referred to ‘Boere mafia’ or ‘khaki-collar criminals’ (Milliken and Shaw 2012).
- 66.
‘特大羚羊角走私案’, China Daily, June 23, 2013.
- 67.
E.g. ‘一根犀牛角 五走私网 跨越两大洲的 犀牛角上的中国魅影’, Infzm, October 10, 2013; ‘物 消失 伙内榕破特大犀牛角走私案’, Fznews, November 20, 2013.
- 68.
‘一根犀牛角 五走私网 跨越两大洲的 犀牛角上的中国魅影’, Infzm, October 10, 2013.
- 69.
The overlap is illustrated by an arrested trader of two rhino horns in Las Vegas in 2014 who was allegedly also involved in the smuggling of cocaine from the Medellin drug cartel to the United States (Christy 2014).
- 70.
The last 40-year-old male, ‘Sudan’, is under 24-h protection by armed guards at Ol Pejeta Conservancy in Central Kenya.
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van Uhm, D.P. (2016). Crime to Cure. In: The Illegal Wildlife Trade. Studies of Organized Crime, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42129-2_9
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