Abstract
Caviar has a long and rich history, from the food of the poor to a luxury product for the upper classes in Europe. Historically, the symbolic value of caviar is determined in the context of changing social, political and environmental circumstances. The poaching exploded in the 1990s with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, due to which poor local people became unemployed and resorted to poaching. This chapter highlights that criminal networks manifest themselves at all levels of the trade: from the poaching areas where organized criminal groups cooperate with law enforcers and possess top-notch equipment to major smuggling operations in the hands of sophisticated criminal networks. The consequences include not only the possible extinguishing of this ancient fish, but the trade can also become extremely harmful to local people and the Caspian ecosystem.
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Notes
- 1.
Parts of this chapter have been published in two publications: Van Uhm, D.P. and Siegel, D. (2016). The illegal trade in black caviar. Trends in Organized Crime, 19(1): 67–87; Siegel, D. and Van Uhm, D.P. (2014). Zwarte kaviaar. Criminele netwerken, illegale handel en de bedreiging van de steur. Justitiële verkenningen, 30(2): 54–70.
- 2.
In this case study the term ‘mafia’ is used as an emic concept, i.e. how local people perceive and categorize the world (Kottak 1996).
- 3.
Images of sturgeons were found in Egyptian temple carvings in Luxor (Saffron 2002).
- 4.
The Greek writer Claudius Aelianus described ‘a colossal lake in the land of the Caspians inhabited by huge fish with pointed noises’ and in ancient China a legend said that sturgeon can transform into dragons (Shadrina 2007: 55).
- 5.
In Judaism and Islam caviar was considered to be unclean. This changed in 1981, when Ayatollah Khomeini announced that caviar was halal, perhaps in order to bolster Iran’s competitive position on the world market against Russia. Many Iranians still avoid eating caviar (Saffron 2002).
- 6.
From 1896 to 1914 the annual sturgeon catch reached 350,000–390,000 tonnes in the northern Russian part of the Caspian Sea, as well as in Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan.
- 7.
Caviar also became a sought-after commodity in barter transactions. A German firm in Kazakhstan, for instance, signed a contract to build 40 houses in exchange for 24 tonnes of caviar. In Astrakhan, promises were made to construct roads in exchange for caviar, but the caviar ended up in Alaska and no roads were ever built (Taylor 1997).
- 8.
Conf. 13.7 (Rev. CoP14).
- 9.
Commission Regulation (EC) No. 865/2006.
- 10.
The fifth state, Iran, was allowed to continue its export without CITES restrictions as the country was said to strictly control the catch (Gordon 2002).
- 11.
The largest Beluga ever caught was as big as 28 ft and weighed 4,570 lb (Saffron 2002: 33).
- 12.
Between 1999 and 2004 the Caspian Sea provided 89 % of the reported exports worldwide, followed by the Amur River (5 %), the Danube River/Black Sea (5 %) and North American rivers (2 %) (Raymakers 2006).
- 13.
17 critically endangered; 2 endangered; 4 vulnerable; 2 near threatened; 2 least concern.
- 14.
In 1998, almost 99 % of the total supply of caviar originated from seven countries, including Russia (121 tonnes, 44 %), Iran (42 %) and Kazakhstan (9 %). More than 50 % of the trade was destined for the EU alone with France (19 %) and Germany (17 %) as the major outlets (Raymakers 2002).
- 15.
However, there were discrepancies between reported imports and reported re-exports. For instance, Russia recorded 74 t of re-exported caviar, while only 28 t were imported. Apparently misreporting occurs at a certain point in the trade (Engler and Knapp 2008).
- 16.
The illegal caviar trade also took place in the Soviet Union. In 1978 in Sochi the director of the “Okean” caviar shops and his subordinates were arrested for caviar and sturgeon contraband. High-ranking officials were involved in an abuse of power and corruption (Zabyelina 2013).
- 17.
The origin of these estimations of illegal caviar is often the Caspian Research Fishery Institute. According to the authors these rates are calculated using mathematical models based on the difference between the expected level of catch and the real catch. However, the founding principles of the estimation methodology are questioned by many experts (Lagutov 2007: 243).
- 18.
The number of EU seizures can be found in the EU-TWIX database.
- 19.
Seizures of caviar in the United States between 2003 and 2012 indicate that more than 30 % originates from Russia (Fish and Wildlife Services database 2013).
- 20.
In the first half of 2010 in the Republic of Dagestan there were 300 registered criminal cases under Article 256 of the Criminal Code (the illegal harvesting of aquatic biological resources) and Article 175 (the purchase or sale of property knowingly obtained through criminal activity). Only 4 criminal cases were registered by the Fisheries Inspection of Dagestan (Nellemann et al. 2014).
- 21.
In 2013, 347 crimes related to sturgeon poaching were registered in Kazakhstan over a period of 10 months, showing a 40 % increase compared to 2012. During 2012–2013, only 466 of the 991 criminal cases related to sturgeon poaching were brought to court (Nellemann et al. 2014).
- 22.
Kirovskiy, Poldnevoye and Gandurino.
- 23.
Lagan.
- 24.
Sulak, Kaspiysk and Izerbash.
- 25.
Pakywa.
- 26.
Salyan and Neftçala.
- 27.
‘Police stop funeral van for breaking speed limit to find caviar inside coffin’, Tass, October 27, 2015.
- 28.
Private aircraft are also used in the illegal trade in caviar. According to a Dutch law enforcer, in April 2013 border force officers from the ‘small ports team’ intercepted a private aircraft at Farnborough Airport on arrival from Ukraine. Despite the passenger stating that he had nothing to declare, a search of the luggage revealed one kilo (two 500 g unlabelled tins) of Russian caviar. As no CITES documentation had been obtained the goods were seized from the importer. There have been a number of similar seizures from private jets (Reijngoud 2014).
- 29.
Organized criminal groups also supply Moscow’s supermarket chains with illegal caviar (Zabyelina 2014). In 2009, four offenders sold 3.1 t of unlicensed caviar worth RUB 93.5 million (USD 2.8 million) to supermarkets in Moscow.
- 30.
Sometimes, the sellers allow one to taste their caviar, while others only show their caviar if one really wants to buy it (RS14).
- 31.
The results of a study of the caviar market in New York City (Doukakis et al. 2012) show that the level of mislabelled caviar is at least 10 % (in comparison to a previous study which showed 19 %).
- 32.
‘The sturgeon has seen more years when it first spawns than many fish see in a lifetime’ (Carey 2005).
- 33.
From 2000 until the beginning of 2014, from the 28 seizures with 1,615 kg of caviar, 16 confiscations (1,272 kg) were by truck or car, 7 by aircraft (114 kg), 1 by ship (4.5 kg) and 7 outside border control (227 kg).
- 34.
The smuggling route from Azerbaijan by surface transport through Turkey from where large quantities are exported to Western countries had already been noticed in 1999 (Raymakers 2002).
- 35.
Note that no shipments of illegal caviar from Turkey were seized in the EU.
- 36.
Based on confiscations in the EU-TWIX database between 2001 and 2010.
- 37.
Noteworthy is that many indicators refer to smuggling by road, while the recorded seizures indicate that caviar is largely smuggled by plane (62 %) in comparison to road (6 %), mail (4 %) and rail (2 %). Probably, this is due to the higher probability of detection and control during border controls at airports.
- 38.
At the end of the 1990s, approximately 3,500 tonnes of illegally caught sturgeon were transported to Moscow every year and this happened under the protection of Chechen organized crime (Taylor 1997).
- 39.
In the late 1970s the currency was one USD for 0.75 RUR, in 2001 the currency dropped by 40 times with one USD for 30 RUR (Raymakers 2002), while currently (2015) one USD is worth 45 RUR.
- 40.
Based on a large-scale operation in 2003 where police officers intercepted 1,200 incidents of poaching within a month, confiscated 180 poaching boats, 10,000 m of nets, 400 hooks and lines, 1,236 kg of sturgeon caviar, 170 kg of sturgeon fish and almost 135 tonnes of other seafood (with an estimated value of 81,724,000 roubles). 73 people were caught while they were illegally fishing and 5,000 criminal cases were commenced.
- 41.
Taking into consideration that an average team makes about 12 trips per month, it results in about 18,000 USD of corrupt money on a monthly basis, which amounts to about 144,000 USD of corrupt money per 8-month season.
- 42.
‘Осетровая война’, Ogoniok, 2007; ‘Прокуратура легла на кавказский след’, Kommersant, April 26, 2005.
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van Uhm, D.P. (2016). Black Caviar. In: The Illegal Wildlife Trade. Studies of Organized Crime, vol 15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42129-2_7
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