Skip to main content

Protecting Students from Racial Discrimination in Public Schools

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Adolescents, Rapid Social Change, and the Law

Part of the book series: Advancing Responsible Adolescent Development ((ARAD))

  • 854 Accesses

Abstract

The school to prison pipeline has become an increasingly popular topic of research in the field of Criminal Justice. These analyses focus on the racial biases that affect how disciplinary measures are given in public schools, and the increased probability that a child will end up in the system of corrections after being disciplined. Moreover, evidence suggests that minority children are segregated into the “slower” classes or special needs groups. While the findings suggests that these actions have been manifesting with shocking consistency in the public school system, a combination of recent empirical studies from various disciplines has uncovered another disturbing, yet consistent trend. Economically disadvantaged families are consistently segregated into poorer areas, which consequently confines them into lower quality school districts. Citizens who are overrepresented in the groups of those experiencing the harmful effects of societal discrimination are minorities, especially young African-American males. Yet, these empirical discoveries appear continuously overlooked when new reform policies are created for public schools and states alike. Initial empirical findings suggest that homogenous schooling may be a viable solution to the plight faced by juveniles in public school systems, and could diminish the overrepresentation of minorities in the school to prison pipeline. This chapter examines these issues and charts the feasibility of fostering homogenous schooling.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen, J. P., Pianta, R. C., Gregory, A., Mikami, A. Y., & Lun, J. (2011). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement. Science, 333, 1034–1037.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Alvarez, R., Brennan, S., Carter, N., Dong, H. -K., Eldridge, A., Fratto, J., et al. (2009). The ABCD’s of texas education: Assessing the benefits and costs of reducing the dropout rate. Bush School of Government & Public Service, Texas A&M University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Archbald, D. A. (2004). School choice, magnet schools, and the liberation model: An empirical study. Sociology of Education, 77(4), 283–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balfanz, R., & Byrnes, V. (2012). The importance of being there: A report on absenteeism in the Nation’s Public Schools (pp. 1–46). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univesrity School of Education, Everyone Graduates Center, Get Schooled.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, K. L. (2011). The school-to-prison pipeline: Structuring legal reform. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 22(4), 593–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrow, R. (2011). Plato and education (Vol. 6). NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bickel, A. M. (1964). Decade of school desegregation-progress and prospects. The Columbia Law Review, 64, 193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, E. A., Marchbanks, M. P, I. I. I., Carmichael, D., & Fabelo, T. (2012). Comparing campus discipline rates: A multivariate approach for identifying schools with significantly different than expected exclusionary discipline rates. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk, 3(2), 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).

    Google Scholar 

  • Casella, R. (2003). Zero tolerance policy in schools: Rationale, consequences, and alternatives. The Teachers College Record, 105(5), 872–892.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christle, C. A., Jolivette, K., & Nelson, C. M. (2005). Breaking the school to prison pipeline: Identifying school risk and protective factors for youth delinquency. Exceptionality, 13(2), 69–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Civil Rights Act of 1964, 42 USC §§2000e (1964).

    Google Scholar 

  • Civil Rights Act of 1991, 42 USC §§1981 (1991).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole P. M., Martin S. E., Dennis T. A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child development, 75, 317–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, A. J. (1999). Market education: The unknown history. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, R. (1992). All-male black schools: Equal protection, the new separatism and Brown v. Board of Education. Hastings Const. LQ, 20, 725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, C., & MacFarlane, K. (1991). When children molest children: Group treatment strategies for young sexual abusers. Orwell, VT: Safer Society Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., Zanna, M. P. (Ed.). (2004). Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 36., pp. 1–52). San Diego, CA, US: Elsevier Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dubanoski, R. A., Inaba, M., & Gerkewicz, K. (1983). Corporal punishment in schools: Myths, problems and alternatives. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7(3), 271–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dupper, D. R., & Montgomery Dingus, A. E. (2008). Corporal punishment in US public schools: A continuing challenge for school social workers. Children & Schools, 30(4), 243–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., & Sherkat, D. E. (1993). Conservative Protestantism and support for corporal punishment. American Sociological Review, 131–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis. WW Norton & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrell, C. (2015). Corporal punishment in US schools. World Corporal Punishment Research, December 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fine, M. (1988). Sexuality, schooling, and adolescent females: The missing discourse of desire. Harvard Educational Review, 58(1), 29–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey, W. H. (1979). Central city white flight: Racial and nonracial causes. American Sociological Review, 425–448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gamoran, A. (1996). Student achievement in public magnet, public comprehensive, and private city high schools. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 18(1), 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gamoran, A., & Mare, R. D. (1989). Secondary school tracking and educational inequality: Compensation, reinforcement, or neutrality? American journal of Sociology, 1146–1183.

    Google Scholar 

  • GAO. (2013). Individuals with disabilities educational act: Standards needed to improve identification of racial and ethnic overrepresentation in special education. (GAO-13-137). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goddard, R. D., Tschannen-Moran, M., & Hoy, W. K. (2001). A multilevel examination of the distribution and effects of teacher trust in students and parents in urban elementary schools. The Elementary School Journal, 3–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez, T. (2012). Keeping kids in schools: Restorative justice, punitive discipline, and the school to prison pipeline. Journal of Law & Education, 41, 281.

    Google Scholar 

  • González, T. (2011). Restoring justice: Community organizing to transform school discipline policies. UC Davis J. Juv. L. & Pol’y, 15, 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goss v. Lopez, 419 U.S. 565 (1975).

    Google Scholar 

  • Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, 391 U.S. 430 (No. 695).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, A., Allen, J. P., Mikami, A. Y., Hafen, C. A., & Pianta, R. C. (2014). The promise of a teacher professional development program in reducing racial disparity in classroom exclusionary discipline. In Losen (Ed.), Closing the school discipline gap (pp. 166–179).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J., & Noguera, P. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap two sides of the same coin? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, C. D., & Ulman, E. L. (1945). The nature of cities. Annals, 242, 7–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, W. G., Gover, A. R., & Hitchcock, D. M. (2008). Localizing restorative justice: An in-depth look at a Denver public school program. Sociology of Crime, Law, and Deviance, 11, 167–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, I. (1964). Review of evidence relating to effects of desegregation on the intellectual performance of Negroes. American Psychologist, 19(6), 381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruse, K. M. (2013). White flight: Atlanta and the making of modern conservatism. Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladson-Billings, G., & Tate, W. F. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers college record97(1), 47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levesque, R. J. R. (2015). Adolescence, discrimination, and the law: Addressing dramatic shifts in equality jurisprudence. New York, NY: New York University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Losen, D. J., & Martinez, T. E. (2013). Out of school and off track: The overuse of suspensions in American middle and high schools. Civil Rights Project/Proyecto Derechos Civiles.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeely, C. A., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Blum, R. W. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health. Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138–146.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, B. E. (2003). Regulating safe school communities: Being responsive and restorative. Journal of Educational Administration, 41(6), 690–704.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1, 127 S. Ct. 2738 (2007).

    Google Scholar 

  • Puzzanchera, C. M. (2000). Self-reported delinquency by 12-year-olds, 1997. US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Request for Information on Addressing Significant Disproportionality Under Section 618(d) of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 79 Fed. Reg. 118, pp. 35154–35156 (June 19, 2014) (to be codified at 20 USC §§1413(f)(1) & 1418(d)).

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum, J. E. (1976). Making inequality; the hidden curriculum of high school tracking.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sears, D. O., Hensler, C. P., & Speer, L. K. (1979). Whites’ opposition to “busing”: Self-interest or symbolic politics? American Political Science Review, 73(02), 369–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Servoss, T. J., & Finn, J. D. (2014). School security: For whom and with what results? Leadership and Policy in Schools, 13(1), 61–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sickmund, M., & Puzzanchera, C. (2014). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2014 national report. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skiba, R. J., Horner, R. H., Chung, C.-G., Karega Rausch, M., May, S. L., & Tobin, T. (2011). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Review, 40(1), 85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4), 317–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skiba, R., & Peterson, R. (1999). The dark side of zero tolerance: Can punishment lead to safe schools? Phi Delta Kappan, 372–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 69–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, M. P., Allensworth, E., & Johnson, D. W. (2011). Student and teacher safety in Chicago public schools: The roles of community context and school social organization. ERIC.

    Google Scholar 

  • The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. (2014). Opportunity for all: President Obama Launches My Brother’s Keeper Initiative to Build Ladders of Opportunity for Boys and Young Men of Color [Press release].

    Google Scholar 

  • Truely, W. G., & Davis, M. F. (1993). Public education programs for African-American males: A gender equity perspective. NYU Rev. L. & Soc. Change, 21, 725.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Const. amend. V.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Const. amend. XIV.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2012). National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 cohort, 1997–2010 (rounds 1–14).

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights 1 (2014). Civil rights data collection: Data snapshot (school discipline).

    Google Scholar 

  • Wald, J., & Losen, D. J. (2003). Defining and redirecting a school-to-prison pipeline. New Directions for Youth Development, 2003(99), 9–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J. M, Jr., Goodkind, S., Wallace, C. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2008). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in school discipline among US high school students: 1991–2005. The Negro Educational Review, 59(1–2), 47.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Washington Research Project. (1974). Children out of school in America: a report: The fund.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639 (2002).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert Crawford .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Crawford, R. (2016). Protecting Students from Racial Discrimination in Public Schools. In: Levesque, R. (eds) Adolescents, Rapid Social Change, and the Law. Advancing Responsible Adolescent Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-41535-2_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics