Abstract
The analysis of a few significant events of the modern and contemporary history, carried out examining not only the characteristics of the catastrophes but the phases following the occurrence, concerns the earthquakes of Guatemala (1541), Lisbon (1755), Calabria (1783), Lefkas (1826), Casamicciola (1883) and others. Apart from the concern for the humanitarian assistance to injured people, the tax exemption for a certain period, the indications of sanitarian policy in an emergency situation etc., that is a common factor of reports, rules or codes, it is to be noticed that only in a very restricted number of cases technical indications or rules are given for the construction/reconstruction in order to prevent or at least reduce the risk and the amount of damage caused on the buildings by seismic activity. The survey and analysis of the construction practice “codes” presently known, generally issued in seismic prone areas shortly after important earthquakes from the 18th century on, or the reconstruction really put into practice allow to perceive the evolution of the research concerning the origin of the seismic phenomena, the filing, classification, evaluation, interpretation of the damage as well as the slow evolution of the strategies of damage prevention and failure repair. The use and the role, documented since prehistoric times, of the reinforcement of the masonry bearing walls with timber elements or frames is documented in all the seismic zones of the Mediterranean basin, in the widest meaning of the term, as well as all over the world without any apparent mutual influence; then the recommendations, common to some national codes, to make new constructions adopting this building system, is to be regarded as a reference to the traditional practice that had proved to be efficacious at least in preserving the constructions from total collapse and reducing the loss of human lives. The concern for the conservation of the historic buildings, conflicting with the supposed necessity of demolishing the buildings that had been severely damaged, and the rules for the correct repair intervention are only dealt with in the contemporary codes.
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Notes
- 1.
«…the Spanish government decreed the death penalty against who was rash to raise the building storeys ….».
- 2.
Consiglio ed istruzioni fatte dal Vicario Generale Duca, che fu di Camastra, col voto dell’Ill.mo Senato, e corpo Ecclesiastico, per la nuova riedificazione della città di Catania 18 Aprile 1694 [2].
- 3.
«… a firmer safety to prevent the ruins that could be caused by earthquakes …».
- 4.
Variable from 8 canne (around 16 m) to a minimum of 4 canne (around 8 m).
- 5.
«…having experienced in the occurred earthquake the people massacre happened due to their narrowness, and that the falling of the binding’s tops on them from both sides obstructed the passage to the people and opened the death path for them…».
- 6.
«…Algiers buildings … support as much as possible each other; and the floors of the upper storey bear on cedar beams that cross several feet beyond the wall aimed at not collapsing…».
- 7.
A constructive device foreran by Leonardo «…ogni trave vole passare i sua muri e essere ferma di la da essi muri con sufficiente catene, perchè spesso si vede per tremoti le travi uscire de’ muri e rovinare poi i muri e solai, dove, se sono incatenate, teranno i muri insieme fermi, e muri fermano i solai…» («…every beam has to pass the walls and to be firm with sufficient ties, because the beams come out from the walls and then ruined walls and floors are often seen due to earthquakes, whereas, if they are tied, they will firmly hold the walls, and the walls will fasten the floors…»).
- 8.
«…the first authentic known example of precise building regulations … of that regulations we suppose a great severity… for a long time respected…»
- 9.
A “scientific” approach to the earthquake begun since Greek and Roman Age with Aristotle and Pliny and the “seismological” theories about the subterranean vapours (pneuma) as earthquake triggering cause. An explanation of the earthquake origin that remained almost totally unchanged up to the Eighteenth century. Furthermore, in order to reduce the buildings seismic vulnerability Pliny, in Naturalis Historia, provided constructive devices i.e. wells execution with the scope of realizing “vent” for the subterranean vapours and the well known description of the Artemide temple in Efeso. It was erected on sheep’s woolly coats and coals aimed at attempting to decouple the superstructure from the soil, namely the first case of seismic base isolation.
- 10.
The aftershocks caused widespread damage elsewhere in Portugal and were felt as far away as Venice and southern France and also reached Morocco and northern Africa.
- 11.
From Kant, mainly interested in the earthquake origin scientific aspect, to Rosseau that piercingly observed «…que la nature n’avoit point rassemblé là vingt mille maisons de six à sept ètages & que si les habitans de cette grande ville eussent été dispersés plus également & plus légérement logés, le dégât eût été beaucoup moindre & peut-être nul…» [4].
- 12.
In particular speculations relative to the earthquake origin, among the several theories, that relied upon Aristotle’s pneuma and the most at that time accredited hypothesis of an “electrical” origin founding on the Franklin and Bertholon widespread theories.
- 13.
On that purpose see, among the numerous publications on the topic, the accurate and synthetic analysis from Galilei to Coulumb contained in Heyman, J., 1997, Coulomb’s Memoir on Statics, An Essay in the History of Civil Engineering, Imperial College Press, London.
- 14.
At the beginning of the 18th century, in order to improve the building seismic response, Christian Wolf suggested the connection among the various masonry panels. The German scholar, the author of an encyclopaedic treatise particularly wide spread in South Italy, dealt with «…Craticula ad firmitatem fundamenti quomodo paranda…» in which described a timber frame for stone foundations with the scope of «…In Terrae motibus hac ratique partiam dissociatio impeditur…» [6].
- 15.
Lisbon was characterized by several fires consequent to the earthquake such as in the Baixa area; from St. Paul’s quarter to St. Roch, and from Carmo and Trindade to the Rossio square area were burnt.
- 16.
However it is obtained a beneficial reduction of the inter-storey height.
- 17.
A design group composed by military engineers, among the others, Eugénio dos Santos e Carvalho, Carlos Mardel, José Monteiro de Carvalho, António Carlos Andreas.
- 18.
Hence this involves significant behaviour differences, if compared to the Pombaline system, under static loads and seismic action [8].
- 19.
«…with skeleton of big chestnut or oak members, according to the nature of the near woods. Those will be located in the corners and to such reasonable distance, and in such way will be linked to other transversal members … the above-mentioned skeleton embraced by masonry, so that all even the smallest part not remain exposed to the environment and for such effect not will be the walls less thick of two and half palmi …».
- 20.
In Italy, during the 16th century, Pirro Ligorio, engrafting in a widespread Renaissance tradition identifiable in Alberti and Palladio, was a precursor of the connection among the walls as a device to prevent earthquake damages.
- 21.
«…The wall fabric will be constituted by bricks or small stones…».
- 22.
The roughness increases and therefore the frictions.
- 23.
«…make use of any sharp stone and with smooth surface … bounded by slaked lime as the Naples usage, and mixed with torrent sand, or irregular earth to the touch, not clayey…»
- 24.
The Ionian islands were subjected, after the 1815 Paris Treatise, under British protection.
- 25.
Such a technical artifice relates back to the transversal junction element of the boat planking. From this it can be assumed, considered that Venetia occupation of the islands has deeply influenced Lefkas culture, a derivation from the Venetian shipwright constructive knowledge.
- 26.
Relazione della Commissione speciale nominata con dispaccio del Ministero dell’interno del 24 agosto 1859 N.33.098 per provvedere ai danni cagionati in Norcia dal terremoto del 22 di esso mese, e per amministrare ed erogare le somme avutesi in favore dei danneggiati; corredata di allegati comprovanti l’esercizio dell’incarico dal giorno del disastro, al 30 novembre 1860 e rassegnata a sua Eccellenza Reverendissima Monsignore Andrea Pila Ministro dell’interno il 15 dicembre 1860. Roma 1861.
- 27.
The Nineteenth century codes differ from the Borbone one for some indications regarding the building plan. In the Ischia island regulations is recommended the «…forma quadrata o che poco si scosti dalla medesima. Nelle località dove sia constatata una direzione predominante nelle scosse pei terremoti, verrà preferibilmente disposta in tale direzione una delle diagonali…» (…square shape or that differ a little from this. In places where a predominant earthquake shake direction is ascertained, to such a direction is preferably disposed one of the building diagonal…). However it is a principle already contained in the Italian Eighteenth century treatises, i.e. Vivenzio, implemented with Torres and Ruffolo’s research of the 19th century.
- 28.
«…Construction system called Baraccato constituted by wooden or iron framings according to the cases, in order that the framings, the floors beams and the notches floors and the roof trusses are firmly connected among them…».
- 29.
Of particolar interest is the article 31, «Per le riparazioni degli edifici di carattere nazionale, in specie per valore artistico, storico ed archeologico sarà stabilito, caso per caso, il partito da seguire pel suo consolidamento» (To repair buildings of national importance, in particular due to their artistic, historical and archaeological value will be established, case by case, the solution to follow for their strengthening) in which the Italian principle of the modern seismic engineering applied to the historical architectural heritage of “seismic improvement” is in nuce contained. Furthermore, among the possible seismic reinforcement and repair interventions is included wooden members installation aimed at reproducing a Borbone timber frame. The article 35 is peculiar, «Gli edifici di cemento armato, che presentino lesioni tali nelle membrature dell’ossatura resistente da renderli inutilizzabili, debbono essere demoliti e rifatti … quelle … semplicemente baraccate, che si ritrovino nello stesso caso possono essere riparate …» («The r.c. buildings, that present cracks in the resistant skeleton members which make them ineffective, must be demolished and remade … those … simply baraccate, that are found in the same condition can be repaired…»), in that case the reliability of the timber framed system is considered more significant than the r.c. one. As it is supported by timber structures properties, frequently characterized by statically rendundant condition and a structural collaboration. Those features lead to a peculiar behaviour in which the rupture of a single element does not entail the collapse of the global structural system.
- 30.
Norme edilizie per le regioni colpite dai terremoti del 28 dicembre o anteriori, 1909.
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Ruggieri, N. (2016). Reliability of Timber Framed Constructions in Seismic Prone Areas in the Practice Codes Issued from 18th to 19th Century. In: Cruz, H., Saporiti Machado, J., Campos Costa, A., Xavier Candeias, P., Ruggieri, N., Manuel Catarino, J. (eds) Historical Earthquake-Resistant Timber Framing in the Mediterranean Area. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering , vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39492-3_19
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