Abstract
This essay is intended as a contribution to the scholarly discussion about small states’ governance, by using the place and function(s) of law and lawyers in Cyprus as a case study. Cyprus is an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, an EU Member State facing acute geo-political challenges since obtaining independence from the British Empire. It possesses a unique kind of a mixed legal system, where “core” private law, as well as criminal law and procedural law across the board follow the English common law, whereas public law (and certain private-law enclaves) is strongly oriented towards continental models.
The legal profession has been instrumental in promoting this mixity. On the one hand, the organization of the Bar and even the judiciary has deviated from the common-law stereotype. On the other hand, the legal profession—or at least parts of it—have been instrumental both in safeguarding the strong common-law elements of Cyprus law and in facilitating the transformation of what was once a “pure” common-law colonial jurisdiction into a hybrid legal system. The dynamics between the different groups constituting the legal profession—the allocation of power, the dividing lines between judges and advocates but also divisions on the basis of age or divisions rooted in their respective legal education.
The chapter consists of three parts. The first part provides an introduction to the institutions of Cyprus law, with an emphasis on the court system and the legal profession. The second part examines certain legal fields that have either remained closer to their common-law or Continental origins or have mutated. The third part examines the role and composition of the principal groups within the legal establishment—and their role in shaping and managing the post-colonial status quo. The goal of this chapter is to contribute to the scholarly discussion about small states’ governance, by using the place and function(s) of law, and lawyers, in Cyprus as a case study. Cyprus is an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, an EU Member State facing acute geo-political challenges since obtaining independence from the British Empire. It possesses a unique kind of a mixed legal system, where “core” private law, as well as criminal law and procedural law across the board follow the English common law, whereas public law (and certain private-law enclaves) is strongly oriented towards continental models.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
The Games of the Small States of Europe (GSSE) were launched in the 1984 Olympics by the National Olympic Committees of Andorra, Cyprus, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, San Marino, to which was added Montenegro in 2009. They are being held in odd years since 1985. In the 2009 games, Cyprus had its best performance, with a total of 139 medals, followed by 81 for Iceland, 62 for Luxembourg and 42 for Monaco. In the 2015 games, held in Iceland, the host country came first with 115 medals, followed by Luxembourg (80), Cyprus (52) and Monaco (33). There is clear correlation between the size of each country’s team and its medal count.
- 3.
The monograph by Thorhallsson (2000) has been especially influential on the development of what is a growing body of literature regarding, on the one hand, small states in international relations, and, on the other hand, European small states and their interactions within/with the European Union. Thorhallsson has also done much to present Iceland as an interesting small state case study. See especially Thorhallsson (2004). Of more recent work, see the collection of essays in Baldersheim and Keating (2015).
- 4.
The only other contribution I have located is Theofanous (2016), pp. 28–49.
- 5.
In that sense, my research (although at an early stage and with different aims and perspective) may be seen as building on the work of political scientists, such as Baldur Thorhallsson, on the role of political and bureaucratic elites in small states, including how their sensibilities impact on their state’s orientation.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
- 10.
Teubner (1998).
- 11.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Cyprus (2012).
- 12.
In 1960, the year of independence but also of the last island-wide official census, the island’s native population was estimated at 550,000 people, composed of 81.14% Greek and 18.86% Turkish Cypriots. See Solsten (1991). The ethnic proportion of roughly 4:1 is a sensitive point and still adhered to, but the latest census (December 2011) presents a population of 681,000 Greek Cypriots (including 8400 members of the Maronite, Armenian, and Latin groups), 90,100 Turkish Cypriots and 181,000 foreign residents. This count does not include the so-called ‘settlers’ from mainland Turkey (estimated by some at 160,000).
- 13.
See Mallinson (2008).
- 14.
Hill (2010) emphasises this period.
- 15.
Hatzimihail (2013), pp. 43–44.
- 16.
Ibid., pp. 40, 44–48.
- 17.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, art 2. The Constitution acknowledges three non-Greek Orthodox religious groups (Armenian, Maronite Catholic and Latin Catholic), all three of which elected in 1960 to join the Greek Community pursuant to Article 2(3).
- 18.
Ibid, art 1 (President and Vice-President of the Republic); art 72(1) (Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives); with regard to the independent officers of the Republic, art 112(1) (Attorney-General and Assistant Attorney-General), 115(1) (Auditor General and Assistant Auditor-General), 118(1) (Governor and Deputy Governor of the Central Bank), 126(1) (Accountant-General and Deputy Accountant-General).
- 19.
Ibid., art 62 and art 78(2).
- 20.
Ibid., art 173.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
Papacharalambous (2015).
- 24.
Cyprus Act 1960, c 52, s 5.
- 25.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, art 152(1) explicitly provides art 155(1).
- 26.
The Référendaires of the European Court of Justice are another model alluded to; however, the legal officers of the Supreme Court have a very high rate of permanent service. Very few have moved. A few have been subsequently appointed as Family Judges.
- 27.
Courts of Justice Law 1960, art 22(1).
- 28.
Ibid. These cases are listed in an Annex to the Law.
- 29.
Ibid, art 19.
- 30.
Ibid, art 22B (added by L. 96/1986).
- 31.
Ibid, art 5. The Assizes Court is presided over by a Judge-President of the District Court, with two Senior District Judges (or District Judges) as members. The Law does not dictate the duration of the term. Members of the Assizes Court may also sit in regular District Court cases.
- 32.
On the Employment Tribunal, see the Remunerated Annual Leave Law 1967 (L. 8/67, as amended by L. 5/1973, art. 3), arts 12 and 12A; Termination of Employment Law 1967 (L. 577/67), arts 30–31. On the Rent Control Tribunal, see the Rent Control Law 1983 (L. 23/83), art 4. The Court Martial is usually regarded as a tribunal.
- 33.
Family Courts Law 1990 (L. 23/90), as amended.
- 34.
See Serghides (1988).
- 35.
See art 34 of the Courts of Justice Law 1953 (L. 40/53, Cap. 8). For English-era family legislation see Caps. 274–280 in the Statute Laws of Cyprus, vol. 5.
- 36.
See the original art 111 of the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus.
- 37.
See the Family Courts (Religious Groups) Law 1994 (L. 87(I)/94), especially art 3.
- 38.
See a full account of the evolution in Hatzimihail (2017, forthcoming).
- 39.
Sioukrou v Ulrich (2011) 1 C.L.R. 443 (Kramvis, J apparently endorsing a statement to that effect by Nikitas Hatzimihail in [2008] 1 Lysias 47).
- 40.
See Serghides (2010), pp. 24–29.
- 41.
Family Courts Law 1990, art 21(1).
- 42.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, arts 152–163.
- 43.
Ibid, art 155(1); Courts of Justice Act 1960, art 25.
- 44.
The same word (Δικαστής) exists in Greek for ‘Judge’ and ‘Justice’ (as a person’s title). Given that the Constitution referred to the members of the High Court as Judges, reference to them in English as Justices has been a very recent phenomenon.
- 45.
Ibid, art. 153(8) and 133(8) respectively. Administration of Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1964 (L. 33/64), art 10, as amended by L. 3/87, art. 2). Between 1964 and 1987, Supreme Court justices constituted only the plurality of the Council (which was composed by the Attorney General, the President and two justices of the Supreme Court, one President of a District Court, one District Judge, and one experienced advocate). The Constitution provided, in art 157, that the High Court Judges act as the Supreme Judicial Council. Supreme Constitutional Court judges were to act as judicial council for matters pertaining to the High Court Judges, and vice versa.
- 46.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, art 163.
- 47.
Ibid, art 155.4. The writs include habeas corpus, certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, and quo warranto. See the overview of case law in Artemis (2004).
- 48.
Board for Registration of Architects v. Kyriakides (1966) 3 C.L.R. 640.
- 49.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, arts 113–151.
- 50.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, arts 152–164.
- 51.
Ibid, arts 133(1) and 153(1) respectively.
- 52.
Ibid, art 133(1)(1) for the Supreme Constitutional Court; Art 153 for the High Court (whose President was to have ‘two votes’, in order to balance off a two-judge plurality).
- 53.
Ibid, art 153(8) and art 133(8), respectively.
- 54.
Ibid, arts 155–156.
- 55.
Article 146 of the Constitution establishes a general ground of jurisdiction over petitions (the term ‘recourses’ is being used, in the spirit of the French recours en annulation) to annul or confirm administrative acts. The provision has acquired great importance in actual practice. The Constitution also empowered the Supreme Constitutional Court to make a final determination of cases where the Public Service Commission is unable to muster the necessary majorities for an appointments or promotion decision. See ibid., art 125(3), in conjunction with 151(1).
- 56.
Ibid, art 133(2)(3).
- 57.
Hadjihambis (2010). See pp. 112–13 on Forsthoff, pp. 114–15 on O’Briain, and pp. 120–21 on Wilson.
- 58.
Administration of Justice (Miscellaneous provisions) Law 1964 (L.33/64), especially art 3.
- 59.
Administration of Justice Law 1964, art 3(4). On President Zekia see Hadjihambis (2010), pp. 94–97. Zekia became also the first Cypriot judge at the European Court of Human Rights, from 1961 until his death in 1984.
- 60.
A corollary speculation concerns the possible orientation of Cyprus public law within the Continental legal tradition: the departure of Forsthoff led to the monopolisation of Continental public-law influences by the Greek administrative law tradition, which at the time was strongly oriented towards the French.
- 61.
- 62.
In the sense suggested by Kennedy (1997).
- 63.
Courts of Justice Law 1960, arts 25(1) and 25(2).
- 64.
Ibid, art 25(1)(3): ‘Notwithstanding anything contained in the Criminal Procedure Law or in any other Law or in any Rules of Court and in addition to any powers conference thereby, the Supreme Court, on hearing and determining any appeal either in a civil or a criminal case, shall not be bound by any determinations on questions of fact made by the trial court and shall have power to review the whole evidence, draw its own inferences, hear or receive further evidence and, where the circumstances of the case so require, re-hear any witnesses already heard by the trial court, and may give any judgment or make any order which the circumstances of the case may justify…’.
- 65.
Courts of Justice Law 1960, arts 25(1) and 25(2), art 14. For the state of law during the British colonial period, see Charalambous v. Demetriou (1961) C.L.R. 14 (the last case decided under the final colonial-era Courts of Justice Law (Cap. 8). In the words of the Court’s reporter, the opinions (‘judgments’) of the three Cypriot High Court Judges contain ‘a restatement of the powers of Appellate Courts in Cyprus under the old law in disturbing findings of fact of trial courts’ For the restrictive stance of appellate case law, see, e.g., K.K. v. Attorney General (2008) 2 C.L.R. 294, Kleitou v. Republic (2011) 2 C.L.R. 113, Attorney General v. Arabides (2013) 2 C.L.R. 113. For an actual case of appellate intervention into factual findings see the very recent civil case Xenophontos v. Zoo Bar Restaurant Ltd, judgment of 15 December 2016.
- 66.
See Christodoulou v Public Service Commission (2009) 3 C.L.R. 164, [2010] 3 Lysias 116. The full Court sat on first instance in this petition by a Supreme Court Registrar to annul the appointment of another colleague to the position of Chief Registrar of the Supreme Court; the Christodoulou Court accepted the petition, setting formal standards and limits on how much the interview of candidates for appointment or promotion to public service may be taken into account over formal qualifications. The President of the Court had recused himself.
- 67.
See the Establishment and Operation of Administrative Court Law 2015 (L. 131(I)/2015); L. 130(I)/2015, passed with a super-majority, had immediately prior amended the Constitution, adding a paragraph- 146(1A) - to Article 146 which enabled the creation of an Administrative Court.
- 68.
European Justice (2016).
- 69.
See the Advocates Law Cap. 2 (L. 58/55; ‘A Law to consolidate and amend the law relating to advocates and to make provision for the establishment of an Advocates' Pension Fund’, as amended by L. 24/56). The Law has been amended over 30 times in the 50 years since independence; [hereinafter Advocates Law].
- 70.
Advocates Law Cap. 2, art 2(1) as amended.
- 71.
The original Article 2 provision of L. 58/55, made reference only to Court-related tasks. See Trusted (1959).
- 72.
Advocates Law Cap. 2, arts 21–25.
- 73.
Ibid., arts 19–20.
- 74.
Advocates Law Cap. 2, arts 21–25, art 3.
- 75.
Even within the small world of Cyprus legal academia, it is not common for teaching staff (especially those employed in the private law schools, who tend to have a strong professional or personal interest in legal practice), to be critical of Court judgements, at least in public.
- 76.
Sale of Goods Law 1994 transplanted the English 1979 Sale of Goods Act; it repealed the Sale of Goods Law (Cap. 267), enacted as L. 25/1953, which had transplanted the 1893 English Sale of Goods Act; the 1953 Law had in its turn repealed the chapter on the sale of goods in the Contract Law (Cap. 149), which was modeled after the 1872 Indian Contract Act.
- 77.
For example, no reference is made to the CISG being in force in Cyprus in the main English-language reference work on Cyprus law, authored by a leading law firm: Malliotis (2010), pp. 749–802.
- 78.
Evidence Law (Cap. 9), art 3. For an explanation see Hatzimihail (2015), pp. 73–74.
- 79.
International Commercial Arbitration Law 1987 (L. 101/87).
- 80.
Evidence Law (Cap. 9), arts 23–36 as introduced by L. 32(I)/2004.
- 81.
Hatzimihail (2015), pp. 96–97.
- 82.
Ibid., pp. 94–96 examining the development of Cyprus Supreme Court’s attitudes toward worldwide freezing orders.
- 83.
See the Courts of Justice Law 1953 (L. 40/53, Cap. 8), art 34. For English-era family legislation see Caps. 274–280 in the Statute Laws of Cyprus, vol. 5.
- 84.
For an overview of things prior to the family law reform see Serghides (1988).
- 85.
Family Courts Law 1990 (L. 23/90), as amended.
- 86.
In fact, Family Courts were originally supposed to be presided over by a cleric, flanked by two lawyers, but the Church of Cyprus refused to participate. What did remain from this effort to accommodate the Church over its loss of constitutional privilege is the requirement of three-member panels sitting on divorce petitions, the overwhelming majority of which pose no real dispute (as opposed to the nastier separate trials on children and especially marital property).
- 87.
Separate Family Tribunals of Religious Groups were also set up to deal with the divorces of members of the three religious groups (Armenian, Maronite, Latin) recognised by the Constitution: these tribunals are composed of one ‘President’ judge, appointed by the Supreme Court ‘from among members of the judicial service’, one District Judge, and one representative of the respective group. See the Family Courts (Religious Groups) Law 1994 (L. 87(I)/94), especially art 3.
- 88.
See Serghides (2010), pp. 24–29.
- 89.
Family Courts Law 1990, art 21(1).
- 90.
See Nicolaou (1998), pp. 121–34.
- 91.
The recent attempt by the Supreme Court justices—who are tasked with drawing and revising rules of procedure for all Courts—to reduce the oral part in certain types of family cases provoked an uproar by the family bar.
- 92.
Zittis v Republic (1998) 3 CLR 394.
- 93.
Symeonides (2003), pp. 449–450. Symeonides has been harsher, speaking of ‘Anglicization’ following independence and pointing the finger at members of the (Greek Cypriot) colonial elite who tricked an ‘inexperienced’ legislature into tying Cyprus law ‘surreptitiously and permanently’ to the English common law.
- 94.
Intervention by phone by Polyvios Polyviou, Advocate in a live television news show at the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, on 14 April 2015, in which there was talk of mutual accusations between the Attorney-General and Assistant Attorney-General (which resulted in the prosecution of the latter by the former and legal action to strip him of his office). The President of the Republic had considered appointing a special counsel, independent to the Law Office, to examine all claims but was swiftly forced to reconsider following reaction by the bulk of the legal establishment. All allegations by the Assistant Attorney General were then dismissed by prosecutors. The Attorney-General was subsequently able to secure the impeachment of the Assistant Attorney General by the Supreme Court. The criminal case is, as of January 2017, awaiting judgement by the Assizes Court.
- 95.
Courts of Justice Law 1960, art 44. The original article effectively reprised art 49 of the Colonial Courts of Justice statute 1953 (L. 40/53, Cap. 8). It was amended significantly.
- 96.
See Kyprianou v Cyprus (G.C.), 2005-XIII Eur. Ct. H.R. (Appl. no. 73797/01). The Supreme Court of Cyprus, In Re Kyprianou (2001) 2 C.L.R. 236, had upheld the conviction of an advocate by the Assizes Court of Limassol for complaining that the judges on the bench were exchanging ‘billets doux’ during his speech.
- 97.
See Kettiros v Koutsou (2007) 1 CLR 828, [2008] 1 Lysias 71 with editors’ note: even though the law on parliamentary elections effectively penalises coalitions of parties as opposed to single party lists, the Court unanimously held that it is a matter for the electoral list itself to define its status.
- 98.
At present there are 79 judges in total at the District Courts, of which 48 at the entry-level position of District Judge, 17 at the intermediate level of Senior District Judge and 14 at the senior position of President. The Courts of Justice Law, art 6(3) sets maximum numbers for each rank (these were increased by L. 41(I)/2014, from a previous maximum of 39, 16 and 13 respectively). There are also three Presidents of Family Court (each for one of the Family Courts) and seven Family Judges.
- 99.
Ibid., art 4.
- 100.
Courts of Justice Law 1960, art 6(1).
- 101.
Ibid.
- 102.
Ibid., art 6(1). This provision was added by L. 35/82 and was successfully invoked only once—soon after this amendment was enacted.
- 103.
Ibid., art 6(2).
- 104.
Ibid., art 4.
- 105.
Creation of the Union was enabled by art 4 of L. 136/91, which also added art 10A to the Courts of Justice Law 2960.
- 106.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, art 153(5).
- 107.
Hellenic Resources Network (2016). The appointment was condemned by the Union of Judges in their general meeting, with 34 (out of 44) Judges present tending their resignation.
- 108.
The election, in early 2016, by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, of Dr.mult. George Serghides, long-serving President of Family Court to the position of Cypriot judge at the European Court of Human Rights has been the proverbial exception that proves the rule.
- 109.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, art 113(1).
- 110.
The Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus, art 113(2).
- 111.
Advocates Law, arts 23(1) and 23(4).
- 112.
Ibid., art 16(2).
- 113.
Ibid., art 26, which authorises the Council of the Cyprus Bar Association to issue Regulations, approved by the Council of Ministers, on the creation and operation of the Advocates’ Pension Fund. Issued in 1966, the Regulations name the Attorney-General as president of the Fund’s Board of Directors.
- 114.
Ibid., art 3(1).
- 115.
- 116.
The only study of the Law Office has been on criminal justice. See Kyprianou (2009). Dr. Kyprianou herself subsequently joined the Attorney General’s office.
- 117.
In the present government, the President of the Republic (a 1960s Athens graduate with a successful law firm in Limassol) could be regarded as belonging to the first group. Two of the ten ministers have their own law firms, having spent their first years in practice working for a major law firm founded soon upon independence. Another minister with a law degree is a former senior civil servant and the wife of an advocate whose family practice goes back to the late 1920s. The other lawyer in the cabinet went quickly into politics and business activities instead of legal practice. All five hold basic law degrees from Greece.
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Hatzimihail, N.E. (2017). On Law, Legal Elites and the Legal Profession in a (Biggish) Small State: Cyprus. In: Butler, P., Morris, C. (eds) Small States in a Legal World. The World of Small States, vol 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39366-7_10
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