Abstract
What was the effect of editors and literary patrons on the native author, from anthologist David Lester Richardson in 1830s Calcutta to Edmund Gosse, gatekeeper of literary London of the 1900s? How did these authority figures view Indian authors? Were there a set of stock orientalist conventions that aspiring writers such as Toru Dutt and Sarojini Naidu were expected to observe? What was the interplay between traditional Indian material and these authors’ inhabitation of English literary forms, from Dutt’s recasting of Wordsworth and Rossetti to Naidu’s adaptation of the fin de siècle decadent exoticism she found in writers such as W.B. Yeats and Arthur Symons whom she met at Gosse’s Sunday ‘At Homes’?
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Notes
- 1.
David Lester Richardson, Selections from the British Poets from the Time of Chaucer to the Present Day with Biographical and Critical Notes by David Lester Richardson, Principal of the Hindu College (Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1840), Preface, p. 3. (Richardson 1840)
- 2.
Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (London: Faber, 1990), p. 4. (Viswanathan 1990)
- 3.
Richardson, Preface, Selections from the British Poets, p. 3.
- 4.
Richardson, Preface, Selections from the British Poets, pp. 14–15.
- 5.
Richardson exercised a measure of discrimination. He writes: ‘I have often taken the liberty to suppress objectionable passages (indicating the blank with stars).... It has sometimes happened that particular passages of which I could not wholly approve were so interwoven with the general texture of the poem that it was impossible to separate them without injury or confusion. In the fields of literature a weed is sometimes so closely connected with a flower that one is not to be extracted without the other’, Selections from the British Poets, p. 18.
- 6.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1515, footnote.
- 7.
Selections from the British Poets, pp. 1474, 1479, 1518, 1483, 1500, 1495, 1492.
- 8.
Miss Emma Roberts, ‘Song’, Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1517.
- 9.
H.M. Parker, ‘The Indian Day: Noon’, Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1480.
- 10.
Rosinka Chaudhuri observes that ‘the craze for Eastern poetry subsided somewhat in the West in the middle years of the century, only to be resuscitated in the last quarter in the writings of Max Muller and the verse of Edwin Arnold, who used very few explanatory footnotes in his poetry. In India, by the time Madhusudan Dutt was writing in 1849, his efforts at compiling the notes became cursory in comparison, while the Dutts, in the latter half of the century, make use of epigraphs but use hardly any notes at all’, Gentlemen Poets in Colonial Bengal: Emergent Nationalism and the Orientalist Project (Calcutta: Seagull, 2002), p. 41. (Chaudhuri 2002)
- 11.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1476. In the note to ‘Settabuldee’, Richardson describes Rattray as ‘perhaps the eldest of our living British poets’.
- 12.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1490.
- 13.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1490.
- 14.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1484.
- 15.
Nigel Leask, ‘Towards an Anglo-Indian Poetry? The Colonial Muse in the Writings of John Leyden, Thomas Medwin and Charles D’Oyly’, Writing India, 1757–1990, ed. Bart Moore-Gilbert (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 53. (Leask 1996)
- 16.
R.H. Rattray, ‘Introductory Lines’, The Bengal Annual: A Literary Keepsake for 1832, ed. David Lester Richardson (Calcutta: Samuel Smith and Co., 1834), p. xi. (Rattray 1834)
- 17.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1518.
- 18.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, pp. 1496, 1515, 1511, 1514, 1516, footnotes.
- 19.
Richardson writes: ‘I am fully conscious of the awkwardness and delicacy of my task, and especially as I have to make way, a few pages further on, for my own verses, which I have not done without an inward struggle and much irresolution. Had I omitted them I should have broken the unity of my plan and exposed myself to a charge of mock modesty, while in inserting them I am perhaps equally exposed to a charge of real vanity. I should have given only a single specimen, but I could not hit upon one that I was willing to be wholly judged by, and have therefore by a little variety given myself a better chance with the reader’, Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1476, footnote.
- 20.
‘To India – My Native Land’, ‘Sonnet to the Students at the Hindu College’ and ‘From the Persian of Hafiz (freely translated)’, Selections from the British Poets, pp. 1519–20.
- 21.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, ‘The Boatmen’s Song to Ganga’, p. 1520.
- 22.
Richardson, Selections from the British Poets, p. 1519. The Bengal Magazine includes a similar piece ‘Translation of an Ode from Hafiz’ written by Sir John Malcolm.
- 23.
Derozio expresses the same thoughts in his sonnet ‘The Harp of India’:
Verse
Verse Why hang’st thou lonely on yon withered bough? Unstrung, for ever, must thou there remain? Thy music once was sweet – who hears it now? Why doth the breeze sigh over thee in vain? – Silence hath bound thee with her fatal chain; Neglected, mute, and desolate art thou, Like ruined monument on desert plain! – O! many a hand more worthy far than mine Once thy harmonious chords to sweetness gave, And many a wreath for them did Fame entwine Of flowers still blooming on the minstrel’s grave: Those hands are cold – but if thy notes divine May be by mortal wakened once again, Harp of my country, let me strike the strain!
Derozio, Poet of India, ed. Rosinka Chaudhuri (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 96–7. (Derozio 2008)
- 24.
Alexander Duff, New Era of the English Language and English Literature in India or, an Exposition of the Late Governor General of India’s Last Act, Relative to the Promotion of European Literature and Science, through the Medium of the English Language, amongst the Natives of that Populous and Extensive Province of the British Empire (Edinburgh: John Johnstone, 1837), p. 26. (Duff 1837)
- 25.
Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest, p. 54.
- 26.
M.K. Naik writes: ‘This selection influenced not only early Indo-Anglian poets but also the new poets in the Indian languages. It was required reading in the high schools of the then Bombay Presidency, and perhaps in other parts of the country as well, and proved to be a source of inspiration to the pioneers of the new poetry in languages like Marathi and Kannada’, M.K. Naik, ‘Echo and Voice in Indian Poetry in English’, Indian Response [sic] to Poetry in English: A Festschrift for V.K. Gokak, eds. M.K. Naik et al. (Madras: Macmillan, 1970), p. 270. (Naik 1970)
- 27.
Behramji Merwanji Malabari, The Indian Muse in English Garb (Bombay: The Reporters Press, 1876), p. 4. (Malabari 1876)
- 28.
- 29.
The lines are from Leigh Hunt’s ‘A Thought or Two on Reading Pomfret’s Choice’, 1823.
- 30.
The lines are from ‘To My Book’ by Richard Chenevix Trench (1807–1886), Church of Ireland archbishop of Dublin.
- 31.
Fredoon Kabraji, This Strange Adventure: An Anthology of Poems in English by Indian 1828–1946 (Quarterly, Spring 1947; London: New India Publishing Co.), p. 7. (Kabraji 1947)
- 32.
Chaudhuri, Gentlemen Poets in Colonial Bengal, p. 153.
- 33.
Dutt Family Album, pp. 32, 21, 14–15, 102.
- 34.
Richardson, Preface, Selections from the British Poets, p. 15.
- 35.
Toru Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan, with an introductory memoir by Edmund W. Gosse (London: Kegan Paul, 1882), pp. viii–ix. (Dutt 1982)
- 36.
Toru Dutt, A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields (Bhowanipore: Saptahik Sambad Press, 1876). (Dutt 1876)
- 37.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, pp. xxvi, xxvii.
- 38.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. xxii.
- 39.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. xv.
- 40.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. xxii.
- 41.
Ann Thwaite, Edmund Gosse: A Literary Landscape, 1849–1928 (London: Secker and Warburg, 1984), p. 351. (Thwaite 1984). Thwaite attributes this remark to Robbie Ross.
- 42.
By 1928 when Gosse died, T.S. Eliot could write, ‘the place that Sir Edmund Gosse filled in the literary and social life of London is one that no one can ever fill again, because it is, so to speak, an office that has been abolished’, Thwaite, Gosse, p. 1.
- 43.
Arthur Symons, The Memoirs of Arthur Symons: Life and Arts in the 1890s, ed. Karl Beckson (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977), p. 44. (Symons 1977)
- 44.
Thwaite, Gosse, p. 415.
- 45.
Marcus Clarke, Preface to New Edition of Adam Lindsay Gordon, Sea Spray and Smoke Drift (Melbourne: Clarson, Massina and Co., 1876), p. vi. (Clarke 1876)
- 46.
‘The Song of the Happy Shepherd’, Crossways [1889], The Collected Works, volume 1: Poems, 2nd edition, ed. Richard J. Finneran (New York: Scribner, 1997), p. 5.
- 47.
Meredith Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women in Bengal, 1849–1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 28. (Borthwick 1984)
- 48.
Borthwick, The Changing Role of Women, p. 86. The Native Ladies’ Institution, founded in 1882, used Toru Dutt’s Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan as text book.
- 49.
Sen’s speech is quoted in Lord Beveridge, India Called Them (London: Allen and Unwin, 1947), p. 84. (Beveridge 1947)
- 50.
Clarisse Bader, Introduction to the original French edition, The Diary of Mademoiselle D’Arvers, trans. N. Kamala (New Delhi: Penguin India, 2005), p. 6. (Bader 2005)
- 51.
Harihar Das, The Life and Letters of Toru Dutt (London: Oxford University Press, 1921), p. 17–18. (Das 1921)
- 52.
Govin Chunder Dutt, Preface, A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields, second edition, (Bhowanipore: Saptahik Sambad Press, 1878), p. ix. (Dutt 1878)
- 53.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 20.
- 54.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 22
- 55.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 39, 34, note to 34.
- 56.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 68.
- 57.
Toru Dutt, ‘An Eurasian Poet’, The Bengal Magazine, 3 (August 1874–July 1875): 189. (Dutt 1874–1875)
- 58.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 141.
- 59.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 119. Individual poems had already appeared in The Bengal Magazine.
- 60.
The Bengali Magazine, 4 (August 1875–July 1876): 476.
- 61.
Meenakshi Mukherjee, The Perishable Empire: Essays on Indian Writing in English (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 97. (Mukherjee 2000)
- 62.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, pp. 125 and note, 183.
- 63.
Das, Life and Letters of Toru Dutt, p. 7.
- 64.
Romesh C. Dutt, ‘Translator’s Epilogue’, The Ramayana and The Mahabharata (London: Dent, 1900), p. 332–3. (Dutt 1900)
- 65.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p.106.
- 66.
R. C. Dutt, ‘Translator’s Epilogue’, p. 327.
- 67.
R. C. Dutt, ‘Translator’s Epilogue’, p. 329.
- 68.
R. C. Dutt, Ramayana and The Mahabharata, p. 81.
- 69.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 46.
- 70.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 11. Sudeshna Banerjee talks of this period as exhibiting a ‘conscious drive to redefine domestic morality in an effort to flesh out the idea of the nation at the level of the household and the family…a Brahmanical core…laced with some features derived from Victorian notions of discipline, punctuality, and domestic Hygiene’, ‘Spirituality and Nationalist Domesticity: Rereading the Relationship’, Calcutta Historical Journal, 19–20 (1997–8):175. (Banerjee 1997–8)
- 71.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, pp. 27–8.
- 72.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 16.
- 73.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, pp. 13, 14, 40, 12.
- 74.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Sonnet I, Sonnets from the Portuguese (1850), lines 13–14. Barrett Browning was one of Dutt’s favourite poets.
- 75.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 58; c.f. ‘Morning and evening/ Maids heard the goblins cry:/ ‘Come buy our orchard fruits, Come buy, come buy…’, Christina Rossetti, ‘Goblin Market’ (1862), lines 1–4.
- 76.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 59.
- 77.
The Vishnu Purana, translated by Horace Hyman Wilson (London: John Murray, 1840), Book 2, chapter XIII, pp. 243–319. (Vishnu Purana 1840)
- 78.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 69.
- 79.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 113.
- 80.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 119.
- 81.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, pp. 122–3.
- 82.
Dutt, A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields, ‘CCIX: Concluding Sonnet: À mon père’, p. 231.
- 83.
20 July 1911, Sarojini Naidu: Selected Letters 1890s to 1940s, ed. Makarand Paranjape (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1996), p. 55.
- 84.
2 August 1932, Naidu, Selected Letters, p. 281.
- 85.
13 January 1896, Naidu, Selected Letters, p. 3. Naidu goes on to mention Swinburne, William Morris, and Edward Arnold. She declares that Watson ‘is the greatest and noblest of them all’.
- 86.
Edmund Gosse, Introduction, Sarojini Naidu, The Bird of Time: Songs of Life, Death and the Spring (London: Heinemann, 1912), pp. 1–7. (Gosse 1912)
- 87.
Gosse, Introduction, The Bird of Time, pp. 3–4.
- 88.
Gosse, Introduction, The Bird of Time, pp. 4–5.
- 89.
Gosse, Introduction, The Bird of Time, p. 5.
- 90.
Antoinette Burton, At the Heart of the Empire: Indians and the Colonial Encounter in Late-Victorian Britain (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1998), p. 19. (Burton 1998)
- 91.
Arthur Symons, Introduction, Sarojini Naidu, The Golden Threshold (London: William Heinemann, 1905), pp. 16, 23. (Symons 1905)
- 92.
Frontispiece, The Golden Threshold. The drawing is signed ‘J.B. Yeats July 1896’.
- 93.
In 1896 Naidu writes to her future husband Govindarajulu Naidu ‘A song of a Kiplingy kind, I confess rollicked thro’ my head. I don’t know whether it is bad – good it is not certainly – but here it is – a style utterly foreign to me’, Selected Letters, 17 May 1896, p. 18. The poem is ‘A Ballad of the Prince’s Progress’. She concludes: ‘What do you think of that? Not poetry certainly, but a colourful jingle’.
- 94.
Naidu, Selected Letters, August 1899, p. 39.
- 95.
See John M. Munro, ‘The Poet and the Nightingale: Some Unpublished Letters from Sarojini Naidu to Arthur Symons’, Calcutta Review, 1 (September 1969): 136. (Munro 1969)
- 96.
Symons, Introduction, The Golden Threshold, p. 17.
- 97.
Symons, Introduction, The Golden Threshold, p. 13.
- 98.
Naidu, Selected Letters, August 1899, p. 39.
- 99.
Naidu, Selected Letters, 13 January 1896, p. 141.
- 100.
George Holbrook Jackson, The 1890s: A Review of Art and Ideas at the Close of the Nineteenth Century (London: Grant Richards, 1913), p. 76. (Jackson 1913)
- 101.
A. J. Symons, Studies in Prose and Verse (London: J M Dent, 1904), p. 234. (Symons 1904)
- 102.
Ibid.
- 103.
Symons, Studies in Prose and Verse, p. 235.
- 104.
Ibid.
- 105.
A.J. Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature (London: Heinemann, 1899), pp. 5, 9. (Symons 1899)
- 106.
Karl Beckson, Arthur Symons: A Life (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987), p. 52. (Beckson 1987)
- 107.
Symons, The Symbolist Movement, p. 10.
- 108.
W. B. Yeats, Autobiographies: Reveries over Childhood and Youth and the Trembling of the Veil (London: Macmillan, 1926), p. 154. (Yeats 1926)
- 109.
Naidu was not the only object of Symons’ enthusiasm for the exotic. This paragraph continues: ‘Then there was the ravishing and wildly exotic Hungarian girl, who vibrated every emotion…’, The Memoirs of Arthur Symons: Life and Arts in the 1890s, ed. Karl Beckson (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1977), p. 73. (Symons 1977)
- 110.
See Edward Marx, ‘Decadent Exoticism and the Woman Poet’, Women and British Aestheticism, eds. Talia Schaffer and Kathy Alexis Psomiades (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), p. 143. (Marx 1999)
- 111.
Symons, ‘Javanese Dancers’, Silhouettes, 2nd revised and enlarged edition (London: Leonard Smithers, 1896), p. 33. The first edition of Silhouettes was published in Paris in 1892. (Symons 1896)
- 112.
Naidu, ‘Indian Dancers’, The Golden Threshold, p. 19.
- 113.
Naidu exhibits mixed feelings about Hope’s work. An approving marginal note reads, ‘This poem would strike wondrous music on the chord of an artistically-moulded heart’, Marx, ‘Decadent Exoticism’, pp. 152–4; ‘Laurence Hope’, The Garden of Kama and other Love Lyrics from India (London: William Heinemann, 1901), (Hope 1901). ‘Laurence Hope’ was a pseudonym of Adela Nicholson.
- 114.
Marx, ‘Decadent Exoticism’, p. 154.
- 115.
Pall Mall Gazette, 2 September, 1895, issue 9497.
- 116.
Rabindranath Tagore, Foreword, The Bengali Book of English Verse, ed. Theodore Douglas Dunn (Bombay: Longmans, Green and Co, 1918), p. xxii. (Tagore 1918)
- 117.
Tagore, Foreword, The Bengali Book of English Verse, p. xxi.
- 118.
Laurence Binyon, Introduction, Manmohan Ghose, Songs of Love and Death (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1926), pp. 17–18. (Binyon 1926)
- 119.
The Times, 12 November 1913, p. 4.
- 120.
Naidu, Selected Letters, August 1899, p. 39.
- 121.
Naidu, Selected Letters, August 1899, p. 40.
- 122.
The Collected Letters of W.B. Yeats, vol. 1, 1865–1895, eds. John Kelly and Eric Domville (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 459. (Yeats 1986)
- 123.
Naidu, Selected Letters, 4 September 1905, p. 48.
- 124.
‘Reality must be local and special where we pick up the traces: as manifold as the signs we follow and the routes we take’, Allen Curnow, Introduction to The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960), p. 17. (Curnow 1960)
- 125.
Naidu: Selected Letters, 8 June 1911, pp. 53–4.
- 126.
Dutt, Ancient Ballads and Legends, p. 137.
- 127.
William Wordsworth, ‘Yew-trees’ (1803), Poetical Works (London: Henry Froude, 1895), p. 184. (Wordsworth 1895)
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Stafford, J. (2016). Littleness, Frivolity and Vedic Simplicity: Toru Dutt, Sarojini Naidu and Mr Gosse. In: Colonial Literature and the Native Author. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-38767-3_2
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