Abstract
This chapter brings together a number of tools and activities that collectively form a toolkit of mutually reinforcing measures with which to mitigate the threat posed by IEDs. These are framed through the notion of a web of prevention, drawing on a concept employed in looking at chemical and biological weapons.
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Notes
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Hajer, Maarten A. 2005. “‘Chapter 12 Coalitions, Practices, and Meaning in Environmental Politics: From Acid Rain to BSE.’” In Discourse Theory in European Politics, edited by David Howarth and Jacob Torfing. Palgrave Macmillan.
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Maya Brehm. 2012. Protecting Civilians from the Effects of Explosive Weapons An Analysis of International Legal and Policy Standards. UNIDIR.
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For example, JIEDDO stated the “The future IED threat consists of an overlapping consortium of networks spanning the entire threat continuum — from criminal gangs to insurgencies to terrorists with global reach — for which the IED is the common weapon of choice. These threat networks operate in an environment characterized by the easy flow of dual-use components through legitimate businesses and one with access to local, readily available explosive materials.” JIEDDO. 2012. “Counter-IED Strategic Plan 2012–2016.” www.jieddo.dod.mil.
- 4.
As UNIDIR have has noted, “State actors tend to frame explosive weapon use by non-state actors in terms of terrorism” Brehm. Protecting Civilians from the Effects of Explosive Weapons.
- 5.
Something evident in the definition of IEDs provided by certain organisations.
- 6.
Borrie, John, and Maya Brehm. 2012. “Enhancing Civilian Protection from Use of Explosive Weapons in Populated Areas: Building a Policy and Research Agenda.” International Review of the Red Cross 93 (883): 809–36. doi:10.1017/S1816383112000124. http://www.journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S1816383112000124.
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Rappert, Brian, and Caitríona McLeish. 2007. “A Web of Prevention: Biological Weapons, Life Sciences and the Governance of Research.” London: Earthscan.
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Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies & the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. 2015. “The International Community and IEDs: Building Coordinated Processes and Responses.” http://www.unidir.org/files/publications/pdfs/the-international-community-and-ieds-en-644.pdf. Pg 6.
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Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies & the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. The International Community and IEDs.
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UNIDIR. Addressing Improvised Explosive Devices.
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In this case, the Jury asked for confirmation on whether “within Iraq/Afghanistan now there are governments in place there cannot now be said to be a ‘conflict’ and therefore no combatant exemption from what would otherwise be a terrorist attack, ie IED on Coalition Forces. To simplify, would an IED attack (ignoring self-defence) on Coalition Forces be a terrorist attack if carried out in 2008/9?” The Supreme Court [UK]. 2013. JUDGMENT R v Gul (Appellant). https://www.supremecourt.uk/cases/docs/uksc-2012-0124-judgment.pdf
- 13.
See, for example, the 1868 St. Petersburg Declaration; Article 35(2) of the 1977 Additional Protocol I; Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; Article 6(2) of the 1980 Protocol II to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons; Article 8(2)(b)(xx) of the 1998 ICC Statute; and the Amended Article 1 of the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. See the International Committee of the Red Cross. 1995. “Rule 70. Weapons of a Nature to Cause Superfluous Injury or Unnecessary Suffering.” Customary International Law. https://www.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule70.
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For example, the Mujahedeen designed triggers using wires which discriminated between the rubber tyres of civilian and military vehicles and the metal tracks of tanks. See Jalali & Grau. The Other Side of the Mountain.
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Sonnex & Peacock. Counter-Improvised Explosive Devices.
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In the UK, for example, the 1860 Gunpowder Act set out “regulations about the making and storage of gunpowder”. See: Pellew, Jill H. 2013. “The Home Office and the Explosives Act of 1875.” Victorian Studies 18 (2): 175–94.
- 17.
JIEDDO. 2014. IEDs – Reducing the Risk.
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Revill, James. 2013. A Peer-Review Mechanism for the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention. Edited by Kerstin Vignard. UNIDIR Books. New York and Geneva: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR).
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There are several examples of technology transfer outlined in the text above.
- 21.
Project “global shield” concentrates on the following chemical precursors: Ammonium Nitrate (HS Code 3102 30); Nitromethane (HS Code 2904 20); Sodium Nitrate (HS Code 3102 50); Potassium Nitrate (HS Code 2834 21); Sodium Chlorate (HS Code 2829 11); Potassium Chlorate (HS Code 2829 19); Potassium Perchlorate (HS Code 2829 19); Acetone (HS Code 2914 11); Hydrogen Peroxide (HS Code 2847 00); Nitric Acid (HS Code 2808 00); Urea (HS Code 3102 10); Aluminium Powder (HS Code 7603); CAN (HS Code 3102 60); and Acetic Anhydride (HS Code 2915 24). See further details on World Customs Organization. 2013. “Programme GLOBAL SHIELD.” http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/key-issues/~/media/WCO/Public/Global/PDF/Topics/EnforcementandCompliance/ActivitiesandProgrammes/SecurityProgramme/PGS/ProgrammeGlobalShieldEN.ashx.
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World Customs Organization. 2013. “Programme GLOBAL SHIELD.” http://www.wcoomd.org/en/topics/key-issues/~/media/WCO/Public/Global/PDF/Topics/EnforcementandCompliance/ActivitiesandProgrammes/SecurityProgramme/PGS/Programme GlobalShieldEN.ashx.
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Kutz, Gregory D. 2009. “MILITARY AND DUAL-USE TECHNOLOGY – Covert Testing Shows Continuing Vulnerabilities of Domestic Sales for Illegal Export.” http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/122654.pdf.
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Examples include OSCE Handbook on Best Practices on Conventional Ammunition; NATO “Manual of NATO Safety Principles for the Hazard Classification of Military Ammunition and Explosives”; the UN IATG; and the US DoD “Manual on Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards: General Explosives Safety Information and Requirements”.
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Binnie, & Wright. ‘Infernal Machines’ Improvised Explosive Devices.
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JIEDDO. Presentation on IEDs – Reducing the risk.
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Binnie, & Wright. ‘Infernal Machines’ Improvised Explosive Devices.
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Binnie & Wright. ‘Infernal Machines’ Improvised Explosive Devices.
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JIEDDO (2014) Briefing to the UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons: Diversion of Civilian Explosives and Commercial Products for use in IEDs. April 2014. http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/D4830D557AE1C3A0C1257CAE0045D4E0/$file/09+USA-JIEDDO+(Maj+O'Connell)_APII+GX+2014.pdf.
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Sandia National Laboratories. 2013. “Fertilizer That Fizzles in a Homemade Bomb Could Save Lives around the World.” https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/news_releases/ied_fertilizer/#.VsETDceYEZY.
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Charters. The Deadly Sin of Terrorism. Pg 33.
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UN. 1991. “Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection.” http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/docs/conventions/Conv10.pdf.
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UN. 1991. “Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection.” http://www.un.org/en/sc/ctc/docs/conventions/Conv10.pdf.; Binnie & Wright. ‘Infernal Machines’ Improvised Explosive Devices.
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Zitrin, Shmuel. 2012. “Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in Israel.” In CCW Meeting of Experts on IEDs. UN Office in Geneva. http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/7536E2CDABA210D6C12579F10039F404/$file/Israel_IEDs+2012.pdf.
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Institute of Makers of Explosives. “Security Marking of Explosives.” UN Office in Geneva.
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Johnson, Charles Michael. 2012. “COUNTERTERRORISM U.S. Agencies Face Challenges Countering the Use of Improvised Explosive Devices in the Afghanistan/Pakistan Region.” http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA564137.
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Dolnik. Understanding Terrorist Innovation. Pg 156.
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Wright, Craig S. 2011. “Why Didn’t Google Catch the Norway Killer?” The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/why-didnt-google-catch-the-norway-killer-2514.
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Musharbash, Yassin. 2006. “Al-Qaida’s Online University: Jihad 101 for Would-Be Terrorists.” Spiegel Online. http://www.spiegel.de/international/al-qaida-s-online-university-jihad-101-for-would-be-terrorists-a-432133-druck.html.
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BBC. 2015. “Erol Incedal: Jailed for 42 Months over Bomb-Making Manual.” BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-32142038.
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See, for example, Foray, Dominique, and W Edward Steinmueller. 2003. “The Economics of Knowledge Reproduction by Inscription” 12 (2): 299–319.
- 45.
Stenersen, writing in Perspective on Terrorism, describes at some length Al-Shumukh’s “Special Explosives Course for Beginners”, and how Al Qaeda have sought to improve the efficacy of online training, in the process exploiting audio-visual means of instruction. Stenersen. Bomb-Making for Beginners.
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Ellis, Richard F., Richard D. Rogers, and Bryan M. Cochran. 2007. “Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization (JIEDDO): Tactical Successes Mired in Organizational Chaos; Roadblock in the Counter-IED Fight.” http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=ADA473109.; Zorpette, Glenn. 2008. “Countering IEDs.” IEEE SPECTRUM September.
- 47.
Reportedly, the biometric and forensic data collection processes developed in part in Afghanistan are among the most advanced forensic programmes anywhere and are a crucial aspect to developing and mapping the social networks involved in the IED process. See Dietz. Countering the effects of IED systems in Afghanistan.
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Dietz. Countering the effects of IED systems in Afghanistan.
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Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies & the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. The International Community and IEDs. Pg 5.
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Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies & the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research. 2015. “The International Community and IEDs: Building Coordinated Processes and Responses.” http://www.unidir.org/files/publications/pdfs/the-international-community-and-ieds-en-644.pdf. Pg 5.
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Revill, J. (2016). Strategic Governance of IEDs. In: Improvised Explosive Devices . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33834-7_6
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