Abstract
In this paper, I present a model of application-oriented science, to supplement existing work in science and technology studies on the re-orientation of scientific research. On this “branch-formation” model, research efforts may be guided by non-epistemic values without compromising their epistemic value: they may involve completion of mechanism representations that serve control over these mechanisms while also adding to our understanding of them. I illustrate this model with a case study from photovoltaic technology, involving the possible use of materials with the so-called ‘perovskite’ structure in dye-sensitized solar cells. The paper has three parts. The first argues how existing work on the increasing application-orientedness of scientific research can and must be supplemented with a perspective from the philosophy of science. The second presents the branch-formation model, which combines central ideas of the ‘finalization-of-science’ program of the Starnberg school with recent work in ‘mechanistic’ philosophy of science and in the philosophy of technology. The third part illustrates the branch-formation model with current developments in research on perovskite solar cells.
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Notes
- 1.
In this paper, I mostly use ‘research’ or ‘scientific research’, and leave implicit that this research is traditionally (thought to be) done at universities.
- 2.
- 3.
Throughout the paper, I sometimes use the distinction between (the creation of) epistemic and non-epistemic values, and sometimes that between (the pursuit of) internal/scientific and external/non-scientific (or ‘societal’) goals.
- 4.
Often called ‘the science system’ or ‘systems’ in the science-studies literature.
- 5.
Hessels and Van Lente (2008) provide a more complete review of approaches, and focus on the New Production of Knowledge.
- 6.
- 7.
The NPK approach was originally presented in a single (multi-authored) book. The 3H approach is presented in several edited volumes and special issues, and not all contributions easily fit the same mould (some are by authors who later vehemently criticised the approach). Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff (2000), the introduction to one special issue devoted to the program, is taken as a guideline here.
- 8.
As a case in point, all examples in Gibbons et al. (1994) are research fields rather than specific theories or other research products.
- 9.
The lack of explicit assessment of the shift to Mode-2 knowledge production and of the developments in the triple helix, makes it easier to accuse the NPK and 3H approaches of accepting or welcoming these changes.
- 10.
It is easier to identify these risks than to avoid them. Mirowski (2004) offers a revealing discussion of implicit biases in several influential programs in the philosophy of science.
- 11.
See Biddle (2012) for an overview of these lines of work.
- 12.
From the context, it is clear that researchers in the finalization programme mainly had in mind the direction of scientific research by societal needs. Yet their central ideas are at least compatible with direction by other non-scientific purposes, such as the needs of industry or commercial interests.
- 13.
Craver and Darden (2013, Chs. 5–9) present a detailed and compelling case for the importance of mechanism schemas in science. I focus on mechanism sketches and only indicate possible roles of mechanism schemas in footnotes.
- 14.
In particular, mechanism sketches may fail to specify how well and under which range of circumstances an organized set of entities may be expect to perform certain activities. Thus, they may provide some superficial or ‘phenomenological’ understanding (Craver and Darden 2013, pp. 86–89), but are virtually useless for purposes of control.
- 15.
Houkes and Vermaas (2010, Chs. 2 and 4) offer the corresponding definitions of design, use and technical functions.
- 16.
There are ways to exceed the Shockley-Queisser limit. One is to use ‘tandem’ cells rather than single-junction ones. These combine junctions that are sensitive to different parts of the solar spectrum, and can reach efficiencies of over 50 % in unconcentrated sunlight.
- 17.
Making explicit how much room for improvement there is requires developing appropriate lifecycle assessments of environmental impact, which are themselves a major area of interest and controversy.
- 18.
As reported at http://spectrum.ieee.org/energywise/green-tech/solar/perovskite-solar-cell-bests-bugbears-reaches-record-efficiency (item dated January 2015; accessed August 2015)
- 19.
Google Scholar (August 2015).
- 20.
http://spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/solar/perovskite-is-the-new-black-in-the-solar-world (accessed August 2015).
- 21.
These are the ‘inner’ workings only. Effective photovoltaic cells also require conduction to an external load; protection of sensitive materials combined with transparency to sunlight; etc.
- 22.
In fact, making explicit the transportation role – which is trivially played by the n-type and p-type layers in silicon cells – is pivotal to understanding how DSSCs work. This shows that, even though photovoltaic cells may be represented by the same mechanism sketch, this sketch may need to be re-arranged in order to be developed in some directions.
- 23.
Some dyes not only play the electron-donor role, but also that of electron acceptor, facilitating transfer to the metal oxide.
- 24.
Rarity is not just problematic because it leads to higher production costs, but also because it limits how much power could be generated by photovoltaic cells of this type.
- 25.
Metal oxides are still used, but as a scaffolding for the perovskite rather than electron acceptors.
- 26.
In line with the ICE-theory of functions (Houkes and Vermaas 2010, Ch. 4), the three central activities in photovoltaic cells are taken as corresponding to functions ascriptions to items, since they are the result of deliberate design, rather than functional roles, which feature in post-hoc explanations of systemic behaviour.
- 27.
As indicated above, all photovoltaic cells were, until Graetzel’s pioneering work on DSSCs, understood on the basis of silicon-based cells, without explicit representation of the transportation function. Thus, it would be historically more accurate to represent the tripartite functional analysis as a mechanism schema, constructed from a representation of the mechanism of silicon-based cells.
- 28.
Interfield relations are a prominent topic of inquiry in mechanicist philosophy of science; see, e.g., Craver and Darden (2013, Chap. 10) for an introduction.
- 29.
The need to reformulate the shared functional architecture with the discovery of DSSCs and recurrent discussions of the most appropriate way of operationalizing performance show that, even in photovoltaic research, internal and external goals of different branches are only approximately identical.
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Houkes, W. (2016). Perovskite Philosophy: A Branch-Formation Model of Application-Oriented Science. In: Franssen, M., Vermaas, P., Kroes, P., Meijers, A. (eds) Philosophy of Technology after the Empirical Turn. Philosophy of Engineering and Technology, vol 23. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33717-3_12
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