Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Research in Social Psychology: Consequences of Short- and Long-Term Social Exclusion

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Social Exclusion

Abstract

Social exclusion is a common experience in people’s lives. This chapter examines the phenomenon of both short-term and long-term experiences of social exclusion from a social psychological perspective. I begin with a detailed look at research on the adaptive responses to social exclusion, which demonstrates emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses that should facilitate either mending broken bonds or finding new affiliation partners. I then review work showing behavioral changes that seem antithetical to that goal. This is followed by a review of work within social psychology and related fields on chronic, long-term experiences of social exclusion; work related to bullying and school violence, solitary confinement in the prison system, social isolation and health, loneliness, stigma and discrimination, and a host of other topics are examined. Finally, I examine various factors which moderate how social exclusion impacts people as well as models and mechanisms attempting to explain the often and apparently contradictory findings within the social psychological literature on the topic.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Anderson, C. A., & Arnoult, L. H. (1985). Attributional style and everyday problems in living: Depression, loneliness, and shyness. Social Cognition, 3, 16–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. M., & Martin, M. M. (1995). The effects of communication motives, interaction, involvement, and loneliness on satisfaction: A model of small groups. Small Group Research, 26, 118–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M., Kaufman, J., Simon, T., Barrios, L., Paulozzi, L., Ryan, R., … School-associated Violent Deaths Study Group (2001). School-associated violent deaths in the United States, 1994–1999. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 2695–2702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, J. W., & McClelland, D. C. (1948). The projective expression of needs. II. The effect of different intensities of the hunger drive on Thematic Apperception. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 643–658.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, M., & McLaren, S. (2005). Physical activity alone and with others as predictors of sense of belonging and mental health in retirees. Aging & Mental Health, 9, 82–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, P. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (1988). Psychosocial functioning and depression: Distinguishing among antecedents, concomitants, and consequences. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 97–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 107–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Twenge, J. M. (2005). Social exclusion impairs self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 589–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103, 5–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., Twenge, J. M., & Nuss, C. K. (2002). Effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes: Anticipated aloneness reduces intelligent thought. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 817–827.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M. J., & Claypool, H. M. (2012a). Not all social exclusions are created equal: Emotional distress following social exclusion is moderated by exclusion paradigm. Social Influence, 7, 113–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M. J., & Claypool, H. M. (2012b). Social exclusion and pain sensitivity: Why exclusion sometimes hurts and sometimes numbs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 185–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M. J., Claypool, H. M., Young, S. G., Tuscherer, T., Sacco, D. F., & Brown, C. M. (2013). Never let them see you cry: Self-presentation as a moderator of the relationship between exclusion and self-esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1293–1305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Brown, C. M., Young, S. G., & Claypool, H. M. (2010). A preference for genuine smiles following social exclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 196–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M. J., Sacco, D. F., Young, S. G., & Hugenberg, K. (2014). The impact of race and inclusionary status on memory for ingroup and outgroup faces. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 36, 191–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, M. J., Young, S. G., Brown, C. M., Sacco, D. F., & Claypool, H. M. (2008). Adaptive responses to social exclusion: Social rejection improves detection of real and fake smiles. Psychological Science, 19, 981–983.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhatti, B., Derezotes, D., Kim, S., & Specht, H. (1989). The association between child maltreatment and self-esteem. In A. M. Mecca, N. J. Smelser, & J. Vasconcellos (Eds.), The social importance of self-esteem (pp. 24–71). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackhart, G. C., Knowles, M. L., Nelson, B. C., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Rejection elicits emotional reactions but neither causes immediate distress nor lowers self-esteem: A meta-analytic review of 192 studies on social exclusion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 269–309.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B. (2004). Taking the social origins of human nature seriously: Toward a more imperialist social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 107–113.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, 123–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buckley, K. E., Winkel, R. E., & Leary, M. R. (2004). Reactions to acceptance and rejection: Effects of level and sequence of relational evaluation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 14–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1990). The evolution of anxiety and social exclusion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 196–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1991). Do women have evolved mate preferences for men with resources? A reply to Smuts. Ethology and Sociobiology, 12, 401–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cacioppo, J. T., & Hawkley, L. C. (2009). Perceived social isolation and cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 447–454.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Carter-Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence, 3, 143–153.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheung, E. O., & Gardner, W. L. (2015). The way I make you feel: Social exclusion enhances the ability to manage others’ emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 60, 59–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chow, R. M., Tiedens, L. Z., & Govan, C. L. (2008). Excluded emotions: The role of anger in antisocial responses to ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 896–903.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Claypool, H. M., & Bernstein, M. J. (2014). Social exclusion and stereotyping: Why and when exclusion fosters individuation of others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 571–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Sherrod, D. R., & Clark, M. S. (1986). Social skills and the stress-protective role of social support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 963–973.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310–357.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J. C., & DeLongis, A. (1986). Going beyond social support: The role of social relationships in adaptation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 454–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeLongis, A., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). The impact of daily stress on health and mood: Psychological and social resources as mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 486–495.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006). Alone but feeling no pain: Effects of social exclusion on physical pain tolerance and pain threshold, affective forecasting, and interpersonal empathy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., Maner, J. K., & Rouby, D. A. (2009). Social exclusion and early-stage interpersonal perception: Selective attention to signs of acceptance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 729–741.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., & Richman, S. B. (2011). Social exclusion and the desire to reconnect. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5, 919–932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Bushman, B. J., Im, C., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Acceptance by one differs from acceptance by none: Applying social impact theory to the rejection-aggression link. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1, 168–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., & Wallbom, M. (1976). Effects of self-awareness on antinormative behavior. Journal of Research in Personality, 10, 107–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L. A., Park, J. H., Faulkner, J., Schaller, M., Neuberg, S. L., & Kenrick, D. T. (2007). Adaptive allocation of attention: Effects of sex and sociosexuality on visual attention to attractive opposite-sex faces. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 359–364.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1989). Gender stereotypes and attitudes toward women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 543–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eck, J. (2016). Ostracism and lie detection: When and why ostracism affects the ability to discriminate lies from truths. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, N. I., & Lieberman, M. D. (2005). Why it hurts to be left out: The neurocognitive overlap between physical and social pain. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 109–130). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302, 290–292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., Davidson, R. J., & Friesen, W. V. (1990). The Duchenne smile: Emotional expression and brain physiology II. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 342–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finke, L. M. (2001). The use of seclusion is not evidence-based practice. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 14, 186–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedmann, E., Thomas, S. A., Liu, F., Morton, P. G., Chapa, D., Gottlieb, S. S., & Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial Investigators (2006). Relationship of depression, anxiety, and social isolation to chronic heart failure outpatient mortality. American Heart Journal, 152, 940.e1–940.e8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaertner, L., & Iuzzini, J. (2005). Rejection and entitativity: A synergistic model of mass violence. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 307–320). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, W. L., Pickett, C. L., & Brewer, M. B. (2000). Social exclusion and selective memory: How the need to belong influences memory for social events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 486–496.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerber, J., & Wheeler, L. (2009). On being rejected: A meta-analysis of experimental research on rejection. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 468–488.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., & Brody, G. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 517–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonsalkorale, K., & Williams, K. D. (2007). The KKK won’t let me play: Ostracism even by a despised outgroup hurts. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 1176–1186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, S. E. (2014). Solitary confinement, public safety, and recidivism. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 47, 495–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haney, C. (2003). Mental health issues in long-term solitary and “supermax” confinement. Crime and Delinquency, 49, 124–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haney, C., & Lynch, M. (1997). Regulating prisons of the future: A psychological analysis of supermax and solitary confinement. New York Review of Law and Social Change, 23, 101–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R., Tobias, M., Jeffreys, M., Waldegrave, K., Karlsen, S., & Nazroo, J. (2006). Racism and health: The relationship between experience of racial discrimination and health in New Zealand. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 1428–1441.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrichs, M., Baumgartner, T., Kirschbaum, C., & Ehlert, U. (2003). Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1389–1398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hennig, J., & Netter, P. (1995). Local immunocompetence and salivary cortisol in confinement. Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, 5, 115–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, Y. D., & Pickett, C. L. (2010). Social rejection and self-versus other-awareness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 453–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogg, M. A. (2004). Uncertainty and extremism: Identification with high entitativity groups under conditions of uncertainty. In V. Yzerbyt, C. M. Judd, & O. Corneille (Eds.), The psychology of group perception: Perceived variability, entitativity, and essentialism (pp. 401–418). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inzlicht, M., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2012). What is ego depletion? Toward a mechanistic revision of the resource model of self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 450–463.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Job, V., Bernecker, K., Miketta, S., & Friese, M. (2015). Implicit theories about willpower predict the activation of a rest goal following self-control exertion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 694–706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Job, V., Dweck, C. S., & Walton, G. M. (2010). Ego depletion—Is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation. Psychological Science, 21, 1686–1693.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. H. (1981). Loneliness and social contact. The Journal of Social Psychology, 113, 295–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, E. R., Schwartz, J. H., & Jessell, T. M. (2000). Principles of neural science. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., & McLeod, J. D. (1985). Social support and mental health in community samples. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Social support and health (pp. 219–240). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Fisher, L. D., Ogrocki, P., Stout, J. C., Speicher, C. E., & Glaser, R. (1987). Marital quality, marital disruption, and immune function. Psychosomatic Medicine, 49, 13–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Garner, W., Speicher, C., Penn, G. M., Holliday, J., & Glaser, R. (1984). Psychosocial modifiers of immunocompetence in medical students. Psychosomatic Medicine, 46, 7–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick-Smith, J., Rich, A. R., Bonner, R., & Jans, F. (1991). Psychological vulnerability and substance abuse as predictors of suicide ideation among adolescents. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 24, 21–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, M. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2008). Benefits of membership: The activation and amplification of group identities in response to social rejection. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1200–1213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knowles, M. L., Green, A., & Weidel, A. (2013). Social rejection biases estimates of interpersonal distance. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 158–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kupers, T. A. (2008). What to do with the survivors? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1005–1010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14, 334–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lakin, J. L., Chartrand, T. L., & Arkin, R. M. (2008). I am too just like you: Nonconscious mimicry as an automatic behavioral response to social exclusion. Psychological Science, 19, 816–822.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larson, R., Zuzanek, J., & Mannell, R. (1985). Being alone versus being with people: Disengagement in the daily experience of older adults. Journal of Gerontology, 40, 375–381.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Koch, E. J., & Hechenbleikner, N. R. (2001). Emotional responses to interpersonal rejection. In M. R. Leary (Ed.), Interpersonal rejection (pp. 145–166). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 202–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Twenge, J. M., & Quinlivan, E. (2006). Interpersonal rejection as a determinant of anger and aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 111–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, M. H., Kwan, V. S., Cheung, A., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Stereotype content model explains prejudice for an envied outgroup: Scale of anti-Asian American stereotypes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 34–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, J. J. (1979). The broken heart: The medical consequences of loneliness. New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 202–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maner, J. K., DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., & Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the “porcupine problem”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 42–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathes, E. W., Adams, H. E., & Davies, R. M. (1985). Jealousy: Loss of relationship rewards, loss of self-esteem, depression, anxiety, and anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1552–1561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Molden, D. C., Lucas, G. M., Gardner, W. L., Dean, K., & Knowles, M. L. (2009). Motivations for prevention or promotion following social exclusion: Being rejected versus being ignored. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 415–431.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nurmi, J. E., Toivonen, S., Salmela-Aro, K., & Eronen, S. (1996). Optimistic, approach-oriented, and avoidance strategies in social situations: Three studies on loneliness and peer relationships. European Journal of Personality, 10, 201–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, C. L., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). The social monitoring system: Enhanced sensitivity to social cues and information as an adaptive response to social exclusion and belonging need. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 213–226). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, C. L., Gardner, W. L., & Knowles, M. (2004). Getting a cue: The need to belong and enhanced sensitivity to social cues. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1095–1107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitts, S., Wilson, J. P., & Hugenberg, K. (2014). When one is ostracized, others loom: Social rejection makes other people appear closer. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 550–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poon, K. T., Chen, Z., & DeWall, C. N. (2013). Feeling entitled to more: Ostracism increases dishonest behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39, 1227–1239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richman, L. S., & Leary, M. R. (2009). Reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection: A multimotive model. Psychological Review, 116, 365–383.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Riva, P., Williams, K. D., Torstrick, A. M., & Montali, L. (2014). Orders to shoot (a camera): Effects of ostracism on obedience. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154, 208–216.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rotenberg, K. J. (1994). Loneliness and interpersonal trust. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 152–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothman, D. J. (1971). The discovery of the asylum: Social order and disorder in the new republic. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D., Cutrona, C. E., Rose, J., & Yurko, K. (1984). Social and emotional loneliness: An examination of Weiss’s typology of loneliness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 1313–1321.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco, D. F., Bernstein, M. J., Young, S. G., & Hugenberg, K. (2014). Reactions to social inclusion and ostracism as a function of perceived in-group similarity. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 18, 129–137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco, D. F., Brown, C. M., Young, S. G., Bernstein, M. J., & Hugenberg, K. (2011). Social inclusion facilitates risky mating behavior in men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 985–998.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco, D. F., Wirth, J. H., Hugenberg, K., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2011). The world in black and white: Ostracism enhances the categorical perception of social information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 836–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sacco, D. F., Young, S. G., Brown, C. M., Bernstein, M. J., & Hugenberg, K. (2011). Social exclusion and female mating behavior: Rejected women show strategic enhancement of short-term mating interest. Evolutionary Psychology, 10, 573–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Structural variations in juvenile court processing: Inequality, the underclass, and social control. Law and Society Review, 27, 285–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Segrin, C., & Kinney, T. (1995). Social skills deficits among the socially anxious: Rejection from others and loneliness. Motivation and Emotion, 19, 1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanley, J. L. (Ed.). (1971). The writings of Henry David Thoreau: Walden. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaver, P. R., & Brennan, K. A. (1991). Measures of depression. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (Vol. 1, pp. 195–289). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sherif, M. (1937). An experimental approach to the study of attitudes. Sociometry, 1(1/2), 90–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stillman, T. F., Baumeister, R. F., Lambert, N. M., Crescioni, A. W., DeWall, C. N., & Fincham, F. D. (2009). Alone and without purpose: Life loses meaning following social exclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 686–694.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W. (Ed.). (2010). Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2007). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 72–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. (1982). Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 1–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuscherer, T., Sacco, D. F., Wirth, J. H., Claypool, H. M., Hugenberg, K., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2015). Responses to exclusion are moderated by its perceived fairness. European Journal of Social Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Ciarocco, N. J., & Bartels, J. M. (2007). Social exclusion decreases prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 56–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1058–1069.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 606–615.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Social exclusion and the deconstructed state: Time perception, meaninglessness, lethargy, lack of emotion, and self-awareness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 409–423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Zhang, L., Catanese, K. R., Dolan-Pascoe, B., Lyche, L. F., & Baumeister, R. F. (2007). Replenishing connectedness: Reminders of social activity reduce aggression after social exclusion. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 205–224.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uchino, B. N., Cacioppo, J. T., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 488–531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Beest, I., & Williams, K. D. (2006). When inclusion costs and ostracism pays, ostracism still hurts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 918–928.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vossekuil, B., Reddy, M., Fein, R., Borum, R., & Modzeleski, W. (2000). Safe school initiative: An interim report on the prevention of targeted violence in schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service, National Threat Assessment Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallston, B. S., Alagna, S. W., DeVellis, B. M., & DeVellis, R. F. (1983). Social support and physical health. Health Psychology, 2, 367–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D., & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 213–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wesselmann, E. D., Ren, D., & Williams, K. D. (2015). Motivations for responses to ostracism. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 40.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2001). Ostracism: The power of silence. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 425–452.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 41, pp. 275–314). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: Effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 748–762.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. D., & Sommer, K. L. (1997). Social ostracism by one’s coworkers: Does rejection lead to loafing or compensation? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 693–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wirth, J. H., Bernstein, M. J., & LeRoy, A. S. (2015). Atimia: A new paradigm for investigating how individuals feel when ostracizing others. The Journal of Social Psychology, 155, 497–514.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wirth, J. H., Turchan, P. J., Zimmerman, A. G., & Bernstein, M. J. (2014). Atimia: A novel group-based paradigm for manipulating ostracism and group members’ performance. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 18, 251–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, S. G., Bernstein, M. J., & Claypool, H. M. (2009). Rejected by the nation: The electoral defeat of candidates included in the self is experienced as personal rejection. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 9, 315–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zadro, L. (2004). Ostracism: Empirical studies inspired by real-world experiences of silence and exclusion. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 560–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pennsylvania State University, Abington, PA, USA

    Michael J. Bernstein

Authors
  1. Michael J. Bernstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael J. Bernstein .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Room 3122, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy

    Paolo Riva

  2. University of Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany

    Jennifer Eck

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bernstein, M.J. (2016). Research in Social Psychology: Consequences of Short- and Long-Term Social Exclusion. In: Riva, P., Eck, J. (eds) Social Exclusion. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation