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From Attractio and Impulsus to Motion of Liberty: Rarefaction and Condensation, Nature and Violence, in Cardano, Francis Bacon, Glisson and Hale

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Early Modern Philosophers and the Renaissance Legacy

Abstract

There was a particular way of understanding and explaining changes in matter’s quantity whose first exposition can be traced back to the Renaissance in Girolamo Cardano’s classification of the natural motions of the universe, particularly in the motions of impulsus (impenetrability) and attractio (abhorrence of a vacuum). Cardano’s exposition was read attentively by Francis Bacon, whose idea of “motion of liberty” both modified and retained elements of the Cardanian view. The Baconian treatment of the motion of liberty made its way well into the seventeenth century in the works of Francis Glisson and Matthew Hale, who draw heavily on it to provide their own account of rarefaction and condensation. The aim of this essay is to reconstruct the history of the accounts of the processes of rarefaction and condensation held by these authors in order to examine the ramifications of the Cardanian approach in the seventeenth century. This history will not only provide us with new instruments for understanding the intellectual relationship between the Renaissance and the early modern period but also improve our understanding of the transformation of the world picture across the emergence of early modern science.

I want to thank José Manuel García Valverde for his helpful comments on an early draft of this essay.

All translations are my own.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    On the strategies, targets and conflicting ontologies involved in this confrontation see Giglioni (2015).

  2. 2.

    Giglioni (2013).

  3. 3.

    Nenci (2004), 22–26 notes this questioning of the traditional Aristotelian view in regards to the concept of void.

  4. 4.

    Cardano (1663), III, 368a.

  5. 5.

    The first edition of De subtilitate (1550) includes the world soul among the principles. See Schütze (2000), 53–54.

  6. 6.

    The importance of matter’s quantity in Cardano’s De subtilitate is noted by Schütze (2000), 66–67 and Ch. 3.2.

  7. 7.

    Cardano (1663), III, 359 a. Vd.. Schütze (2000), 59–67; Bianchi (1994), 118–119.

  8. 8.

    Cardano (1663), III, 359a: “Sed nec materia prima omnibus est spoliata rebus: cum enim (ut dixi) neque ex pugillo paleae, ferri pugillus ob materiae paucitatem, nec rursus ex ferri pugillo, paleae pugillus ob illius redundantiam, sequitur ut materia prima quantitatem quandam retineat, quam indefinitam vocamus. Namque non sibi certos describit limites, cum modo sub forma maius complendo spatium, modo minus latitet.”

  9. 9.

    Ibid.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., 359b: “Porro ad materiae scientiam, imo essentiam sequitur, vt cum formas ipsas aduenientes impedimus, prior remaneat […] Etenim cum necesse sit materiam primam semper sub aliqua iacere forma, si subsequens impediatur arte, vel casu, priorem formam manere necesse est. Inde igitur tota praeseruandi methodus ortum habuit.”

  11. 11.

    Cardano (1663), III, 360b.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., 360a, b.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., 360b- 361a. I quote the critical reading of the text quoted by Schütze (2000), 73: “Primus quidem ac validissimus a vacui fuga, sed verius a forma elementi, cum maiorem raritatem non admittat, nec materiae partes separari unquam queant. […] Secundus […] e directo huic contrarius specie quidem ut primus a vacuo fit. Hic ne corpora se mutuo penetrent factus videtur, sed verius oppositam priori rationem, ne scilicet forma plus iusto, quam debeat materiae primae consequatur, sicut in priore ne iusto minus. […] Tertius autem motus gravium est ad inferna, levium ad superna […].”

  14. 14.

    See Nenci (2004), 24–25 and Schütze (2000), 67–72.

  15. 15.

    For examples of how this theory works in Cardano’s explanations of hydraulic and mechanic machines see Nenci (2003), 68–71.

  16. 16.

    Cardano (1663), III, 360b-361a. The argument based on the subordination of the “proper motions” of individual bodies to the universal consensus was quite widespread in the discussions on void from the Middle Ages to the seventeenth century. See Manzo (2013), esp. p. 25.

  17. 17.

    Cardano (1663), III, 368b.

  18. 18.

    Cardano (1663), III, 368a.

  19. 19.

    For that reason Cardano overtly confronts Averroes ’s view that motions ex necessitate vacui are violent motions. See Cardano (1663), III, 368b and Nenci (2004), 24–25, note 23. It is probable that the terminology employed by Averroes (Aristotle [Aristotelis cum Averrois] (1550), vol. 5, 122r-123v) in commenting Aristotle’s De coelo (IV, 5, 312b3-19) be the source which inspires Cardano to call attractio the motion related to fuga vacui.

  20. 20.

    Bianchi (1994) 120–-124 argues that although Cardano introduces form as one of the five principles of nature, his theories of fire, of elements, of soul and of animal generation as expounded in the second book of De subtilitate work towards the dissolution of the concept of form, by increasingly replacing qualitative by quantitative categories. Cardano’s motion theory, I would suggest, as developed in book one provides another example of this tendency in Cardano’s appropriation of the Aristotelian concept of form. Schütze (2000) 71–-72 does not agree with Bianchi’s interpretation by claiming that in Cardano’s philosophy forms keep a substantial meaning in a traditional Aristotelian-Averroistic sense.

  21. 21.

    Bacon’s explicit references to Cardano are found in Advancement of learning, OFB, IV, 26; De augmentis scientiarum, SEH, I, 456; Temporis partus masculus, SEH, III; 530; Redargutio philosophiarum, SEH, III, 571 and Cogitata et visa, SEH, III, 603. On Bacon and Cardano see also Hutton in this volume.

  22. 22.

    On the reception of De subtilitate and Cardano’s work in general see Jensen (1994); MacLean (1994); Blackwell (1994).

  23. 23.

    MacLean (1994) 323–325.

  24. 24.

    Dyer (1824), I, 161 and Oates (1986), I, 71. McKitterick (1992), 68–70.

  25. 25.

    During the 1630s the B.A. students who attended the metaphysics courses taught by Joseph Mede read De subtilitate along with the critical reply from Julius Caesar Scaliger , Exotericarum excertitationum libri XV De subtilitate ad Hieronymum Cardanum. See Rogers (1988), 11 and Jardine (1974), 49.

  26. 26.

    Cambridge University Library MS Oo. 752 (Donors Book), 19 (items printed in Parker (1729), xlii–xliii). Along with De subtilitate, the list of books donated by Nicholas Bacon in 1574 to the University Library includes two more titles by Cadano: the commentary to Ptolomeus, De astrorum judiciis and De somniis (a short title which probably refers to Somniorum Synesiorum omnis generis insomnia explicantes). Another item notes “Albert Dureus [sic] et Hieronimus Cardanus”, most probably indicating a bounded volume containing Albert Durer’s Geometria and Cardano’s De proportionibus, as can be found in the inventory of the books of the University Library as in 1683 (see A Table of the Books in the University Library 1683, MS Cambridge University Library CUR 31.1 (10–12)). On the donation of books to Cambridge University Library by Nicholas Bacon see Durel (1998), 41–44.

  27. 27.

    Bacon, Phaenomena universi, OFB, VI, 10: “Etiam illud non minus certum, tametsi non tam perspicue notatum, aut assertum sit (quidquid homines de potentia Materiae aequabili ad formas fabulentur), ex quanto illo Materiae sub iisdem spatiorum dimensionibus, plus & minus contineri, pro corporum diversitate a quibus occupantur, quorum alia magis compacta, alia magis extensa sive fusa evidentissime reperiuntur. Neque enim parem Materiae portionem recipit vas aut concavum aqua & aëre impletum; sed illud plus, istud minus. Itaque si quis asserat, ex pari aëris contento, par aquae contentum effici posse: idem est ac si dicat aliquid fieri posse ex nihilo”. Cfr. Cogitationes de natura rerum, III, 23; Historia densi et rari, OFB, XIII, 38.

  28. 28.

    Bacon, Historia densi et rari, OFB, XIII, 70. For the Aristotelian theory of transmutation see Needham (2006).

  29. 29.

    Burns (2001).

  30. 30.

    Bacon, Sylva sylvarum, SEH, II, 382. Cfr. Bacon, Historia densi et rari, OFB, XIII, 101: “that the separation and reciprocation of rarefaction and condensation be completely prohibited, […] for perhaps this will keep the Proteus of matter in handcuffs and force it to act”. On the other hand, Bacon associates Proteus with matter in general and with motion. See De sapientia veterum, SEH, VI, 652–3; Filum Labyrinthi, SEH, III, 625; Cogitationes de natura rerum, SEH, III, 20–21; De augmentis scientiarum, SEH, I, 632. For a study of this image in Bacon see Pesic (1999).

  31. 31.

    Here I will deal only with the presentation of the motion of liberty in Novum organum, where it is developed in more detail. See also the shorter definition presented in Bacon, Abecedarium novum naturae, OFB, XIII, 192: “Corpora naturalia suam exporrectionern siue dimensum libenter tuentur, praeternaturalem siue pressuram siue tensuram fugiunt. Alia tamen alijs longe cedunt benignius aut obstinatius pro modo texturae suae; quinetiam postquam vim subierint, si detur copia, se in libertatern vindicant & restituunt. Hunc itaque motum, motum libertatis appellamus. Videtur enim libertatis quidam amor, qui se constringi aut trahi aegre patiatur. Duplex autem est motus iste; alius a pressura, alius a tensura; atque vterque eorum geminus, quatenus corpora cedunt, quatenus se restituunt. Quoniam autem iste motus constituit eum qui vulgo violentus vocatur”.

  32. 32.

    Bacon, Novum organum, OFB, XI, 385.

  33. 33.

    Hero (1583), 9: “quemobrem vi quadam accedente aerem densari contingit, et in vacuorum loca residere, corporibus praeter naturam inter sese compressis: remissione vero facta rursus in eundem ordinem restituitur, ob naturalem corporum contentionem, quemadmodum et in cornuum ramentis, et in spongijs siccis: quae si compressa remittantur, rursus in eundem locum redeunt, eandemque accipiunt molem. Similiter si aliqua vis aeris particulae a se invicem distractae fuerint, et maior praeter naturam locus vacuus fiat, rursus ad sese recurrunt, per vacuum enim celerem corporum lationem fieri contingit, nullo obstante, aut repellente, quo usque corpora ad sese applicentur.” The Liber spiritualium was a major source for the debates on void, with which both Cardano and Bacon were very well acquainted. See, for instance, Cardano (1663), III, 369b, and Bacon, Cogitationes de natura rerum, SEH, III, 16–17.

  34. 34.

    Bacon, Novum organum, OFB, XI, 386.

  35. 35.

    Ibid., 387. Cf. Phaenomena universi, OFB, VI, 46.

  36. 36.

    Bacon, Novum organum, OFB, XI, 386.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., 386; Abecedarium novum naturae, OFB, XIII, 192. On Bacon’s view of violent motion see Manzo (2004) and Pesic (2014).

  38. 38.

    See for instance, Bacon, Sylva sylvarum, SEH, II, 342–343.

  39. 39.

    Nifo’s natural philosophical work was included among the books donated by Bacon’s father and was a very widely read Renaissance Aristotelian source.

  40. 40.

    On the influence of John Case in Renaissance England see Schmitt (1983), 220–221 and passim.

  41. 41.

    Cornelius Valerius was author of an epitome of Aristotelian philosophy (Physicae, seu de naturae philosophiae institutio, 1567) who is named in a Letter to Fulke Greville (ca. 1589), attributed to Bacon (Letter of advice to Fulke Greville, OFB, I, 207).

  42. 42.

    I have checked those Late Scholastic books dealing with natural philosophy that circulated in English universities during Bacon’s lifetime: Benedictus Pererius, De communibus omnium rerum naturalium principiis et affectionibus (Rome, 1562); Jacopo Zabarella, De rebus naturalibus (Cologne, 1590); Collegium Conimbricense, Commentaria in octo libros physicorum (Coimbra, 1592); Johannes Magirus , Physica Peripatetica (Frankfurt, 1597, later published as Physiologia Peripatetica); Bartholomäus Keckermann, Systema physicum (Danzig, 1610). See Schmitt (1975); Ashworth (1988); Rogers (1988).

  43. 43.

    A long disquisition on the subject can be found in Zabarella (1590), De motu gravium et levium, liber I, Chaps. 1–14.

  44. 44.

    I have suggested the Cardanian inspiration of Bacon’s motion of liberty for the first time in my PhD Dissertation defended at the University of Buenos Aires in 2000 (later on published in a shorter version in Manzo (2006), 191–196). The Oxford Francis Bacon editors of the Novum organum also note the coincidence between Cardano and Baconian motions in OFB, XI, 574–575.

  45. 45.

    One version of this experiment is exposed in Hero, Liber spiritualium, who drew on Phylo. See De Waard (1936), 67. Bacon mentions in passing the experiment as an example of the motion of liberty from tension in Novum organum, OFB XI 386. He deals with it in more detail in Novum organum, OFB XI 373; Phaenomena universi, OFB, VI, 42; and Historia densi et rari, OFB, XIII, 122.

  46. 46.

    Cardano (1663), III, 360a-b: “Igitur aer ipse cogi potest, ac seipsum subingredi, eademque ratione rarior euadere: utque est terminus quidam in raritate, qui vacui rationem habet atque sic movet, ita densitatis alius, quem si quis praeterire nitatur, motum excitat, qui vocatur impulsus.”

  47. 47.

    Cardano (1663), III, 360a: “Cum vero corpora ipsa eiusdem non fuerint generis, eodem in loco esse non possunt: nam materia illa duas haberet simul formas.” Cf. ibid., 360b: “At condensari et rarescere est formam ex parte mutare.”

  48. 48.

    Bacon, Novum organum OFB, XI. 373.

  49. 49.

    Glisson (1672), 90–91.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., 104–113. On the influence of Zabarella in Glisson’s account of matter’s quantity see Hartbecke (2006), 243–246.

  51. 51.

    Glisson (1672), 352–354 (antytipia), 354–355 (nexus).

  52. 52.

    Henry (1987), 29–30; Hartbecke (2006), 253–254.

  53. 53.

    Glisson (1672), 357. Cf. Bacon, Novum organum, XI, 412.

  54. 54.

    Glisson (1672), 357–359.

  55. 55.

    Glisson (1672), 256–257. Cf. ibid. 191¸ 357. In Glisson’s metaphysics operatio is a category which includes motus, actiones, passiones, cessationes, and quies (ibid., 251). On Glisson’s idea of natural and violent motion see Hartbecke (2006), 136–140.

  56. 56.

    Glisson (1672), 340: “Quid demum dicendum est de Axiomate Aristotelis Quid movetur, movetur ab alio?. Existimo restringi debere ad eum motum quo appetitus cujusvis corporis nonnihil infringitur seu cogitur. Aristoteles motum violentum nominat. […] [Bacon] motum oppositum motum libertatis vocat, et paulo post, motum mechanicum. Verum hoc nomine motus mechanici videtur concrete simul includere tum motum violentum, tum libertatis”.

  57. 57.

    Bacon, Novum organum, OFB, XI, 386. In this context mechanical motion is associated with “Democritus ’ motus plagae.”

  58. 58.

    Glisson (1672), 360, 364.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., 374–375.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., 353.

  61. 61.

    Ibid., Chap. 28.

  62. 62.

    Hale (1677), 5. Aristotle is also called “the great priest of nature”, ibid., 102. See Cromartie (1995), 196.

  63. 63.

    Cromartie (1995), 200.

  64. 64.

    Hale (1677), 36–39, 44–47, 89, 91.

  65. 65.

    Ibid., 105.

  66. 66.

    Ibid., 113–118.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., 52–54. Cf. ibid., 81–82.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., 88.

  69. 69.

    Ibid., 101.

  70. 70.

    Ibid., 123–124; 129–130.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., 127. Hale’s treatment of penetration is longer, but it cannot be discussed here in its full extent. He distinguishes three kinds of penetrations: of actual dimensions, of bodies and of material substances. Ibid., 128.

  72. 72.

    Cromartie (1995), 206–208.

  73. 73.

    On the historical relevance of the polarization “natural” and “artificial” see Bensaude-Vincent and Newman (2007).

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    Gianni Paganini

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Manzo, S. (2016). From Attractio and Impulsus to Motion of Liberty: Rarefaction and Condensation, Nature and Violence, in Cardano, Francis Bacon, Glisson and Hale. In: Muratori, C., Paganini, G. (eds) Early Modern Philosophers and the Renaissance Legacy. International Archives of the History of Ideas Archives internationales d'histoire des idées, vol 220. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32604-7_6

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